You are a man after my own heart!  The art of war during the era of pike and shot before and after 1600 is definitely "where its at."

From the 1490s when Italy became the battleground for France and Spain through the great years (and some not so great) 1560-1625, and the last great struggle with France 1635-1659...what a wealth of military history.

I would love to discuss this.  What in particular do you want to know?

Cool.  It is getting late here,   but I will be here tomorrow.  I want to refresh my recollection from "A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century" and "The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road" and also the actions in the Spanish-Dutch 80 Years War and the 30 Years War.

(Whew).  There are also some websites.

I'll get a list of the actions and their importance and post tomorrow before noon. 

http://www.geocities.com/ao1617/TercioUK.html - http://www.geocities.com/ao1617/TercioUK.html

I just noted Ikki's post.  I'll include some info on naval aspects.  Will post later this morning.

Ponce:

In Spain (1480s and 90s) the crusading spirit was still strong because of the presence of the Moors, at least in Grenada.  The combined resources of Castile, Leon and Aragon helped Ferdinand and Isabella assemble large armies and the new artillery that could overcome Moorish fortifications.  In Italy (1494 up to 1525) as France attempted to make a claim on Naples (Aragonese dynasty) and later Milan, and the small Italian states asked for Spanish help, Spain became a European power and started a learning curve that adapted to and incorporated other technology and tactics.

The main developments were:

Adaptation of ARTILLERY to the MOBILE carriages the French had developed.

In more hilly geography (south and central Italy) where cavalry was at a disadvantage, INFANTRY became more important than mounted gens d'armes.

Demonstrated effectiveness of the Swiss pike formation was adopted by Spanish infantry.

As new methods of war became accepted, widespread adoption of personal gunpowder weapons (ARQUEBUS).

Key events:

Cerignola, 1503, near Naples:  Gonzalo de Cordoba defeats French heavy cavalry and Swiss pikemen by the use of arquebus armed infantry positioned behind earthworks.  Probably the first case of battle being decided by infantry firepower.

Ravenna, 1512, No. Italy:  While a Spanish defeat, the lesson was that massed field guns could disrupt and defeat formations in the field or drive troops from defensive positions. 

The French eventually gave up on Naples as unobtainable and concentrated on Milan....this brought the Habsburg Emperor more into the picture as much of No. Italy was still Imperial fiefdoms.  By the 1520s, the King of Spain, Charles V, was not only a Habsburg, but the Emperor also.

Bicocca, 1522, near Milan:  Imperial troops under Colonna and Pescara, including landsknechts formed similar to the Swiss, defeat the French and Swiss demonstrating that infantry combined with field artillery are now the battle winners.  France can not control Milan, but they attempt it again in 1525.

It is from about this time that Spanish infantry are organized in three major formations called "Tercios or Terzios" similar to the Swiss, but with ever more arquebus armed soldiers in support.

Pavia, 1525, near Milan:  Probably the most famous battle of the Italian Wars.  Imperial and Spanish infantry under Pescara inflict huge casualties on French heavy cavalry, mainly by gunfire, and capture the French king. 

From this time, even though the wars continued sporadically, Spain was the paramount power in Italy for over 100 years.  The victory of the Habsburgs was finallly decided in the Netherlands in the 1550s by armies that were mainly composed of and led by Habsburg Walloon and Flemish commanders and non Spanish troops.  Their art of war, however had been learned from the Spanish.

It is important to understand how much warfare changed in this period.  Gunfire and artillery caused huge casualties, much higher than before, and caused the cost of armies to rise dramatically.  It became more difficult to pay for war.  After the sack of Rome in 1527 by unpaid Imperial troops, it was obvious that unfortified or old fortification towns were terribly vulnerable.  A huge "arms race" began, to build new, elaborate and very, very expensive fortifications.

By the later sixteenth century, warfare had largely "retreated" behind the newer FORTIFICATION, and had become a process of maneuver and siege.  Not too glamorous for the battle fan, but pretty interesting anyway.  Strategy became more important than tactics.  Money became more important than anything.

Maneuver and long sieges were very costly to the prince who conducted them and very disruptive to the society in which they took place.  The main effect for Spain was to retain a permanent army structure that was never disbanded since this was more efficient, and cost efficient, than having to re-raise armies every year after the winter.  By the late sixteenth century, the Spanish forces, Castilian, or mercenary or from the Presidios in Italy were a STANDING ARMY, with staff, logistics and even medical insurance.  Late in the revolt of the Netherlands against Habsburg Spain, the Dutch developed a standing army similar to Spain's, and it slowly became the rule among princes (mid seventeenth century).

The chief tactical change in the second half of the sixteenth century was the introduction of HEAVIER MUSKETS in larger numbers in the infantry.  Cavalry declined to more recon and foraging usage.  Cavalry isn't much use against fortifications.

This goes up to early 1600s.  I'll do more (and the naval part) later today.

It should give you a start.  Also, Ikki's website is a good one. 

I don't think they originated it.  Italy was still the brain of the Renaissance, and France and Burgundy knew much about artillery, but El Gran Capitan saw the potential.

(edit)  And nearly all the engineers/military architects were Italians throughout the sixteenth century.

http://es.geocities.com/capitancontreras/ - http://es.geocities.com/capitancontreras/

bye

Pd. I like too this age of wars, XVI-XVII century, very interesting

Jalisco:

Ikki listed:  http://www.geocities.com/ao1617/TercioUK.html - http://www.geocities.com/ao1617/TercioUK.html

Ponce and Ikki:

Some on the navy:

The Iberians (Portugal and Spain) were the first to develop vessels that were large enough to store provisions along with cargo, so they could sail long distances, and strong enough to mount cannon which made them much more powerful than any other cultures' vessels.  This enabled them to cross oceans routinely and to counter most threats.  The carricks and galleons were dual purpose ships that could perform both merchant and naval functions.  This was from say 1480s to mid sixteenth cent.

In the Mediterranean, lighter galleys with oar propulsion were still the rule for naval war.  Climate there was more gentle, and not so much wind.

The galleons grew somewhat in size as the century went on, but in technology they were pretty much the same as what sailed to Mexico with Cortes.  Merchantmen other than the galleon were often pressed into service as naval ships or transports.

Naval tactics were pretty undeveloped.  Seamanship was more important.  Basically naval combat was both a slugging match with guns and boarding each other to fight it out hand to hand almost as on land.

The major check to the Ottoman Empire was delivered in the Mediterranean at Lepanto (off the Greek Morea?) in 1571.  This was almost all galley warfare, but the Spanish/Venetians had a few "galleases" that mounted a number of large guns in the bow.  These were devastating to the Ottoman fleet and along with man to man fighting in the boarding actions, it ended Ottoman westward expansion in the Med.  (The barbary "states" continued to harrass shipping and thumb their noses at the Sultan for a couple more centuries.)

The big OCEANIC change in warfare at sea was the English development of the purpose-built "race galleon" designed to sail and handle nimbly and to also carry a heavy load of ship killing cannon.  No, this is not what decided the action of the Armada of 1588.  That was the weather and fireships in the Netherlands' ports.  But, the English had a good number of these ships in 1588, and did not have to close with the enemy for boarding.  Gradually, other navies began to add some ships of this type.

Another change was the use of "privateers" by the English and then the Dutch (and later by French) and also Spanish Netherlands "fleets."  Of course these were non navy ships, armed and given commissions to attack enemy shipping in order to damage and disrupt trade and its revenue.  A big development.  The Spanish started to utilize them in the North Sea and around the English Channel in the 1620s and 30s.  They operated out of the Sp. Neth. ports (Ostend, Dunkirk, Nieuwpoort, etc.) and they were very effective.

By the 1620s, large fleets of  purpose-built naval vessels were starting to appear, especially in the United Netherlands and the Spanish Netherlands.  (Sweden and Denmark had quite a number also)

Again an overwhelming factor in new naval developments was MONEY!  All this was ruinously expensive in addition to the larger armies and expensive siege operations.  Battles and summer campaigns were usually over relatively quickly.  Sieges could go on forever, and the army has to eat every day.

I'll do more on the army and the 80YW and the 30YW tomorrow. And I want to take a look at the website Ikki recommended.  I have not had time.

I hope you think this is interesting.   

OK.  The Eighty Years War (the revolt of the Netherlands):

All 17 provinces of the low countries were part of the Habsburg "Burgundian inheritance."  Heavily populated, industrialized (textiles, smelting, metal working, etc.) and quite wealthy in XVI cent.

Protestant Reformation began to make inroads in 1550s and 60s.  Seen as a challenge and threat to Catholic faith and the authority of the Crown.  Calvinist theology more accepted in Netherlands than Lutheran.  "Iconoclastic Fury" in 1566......destruction to Catholic churches, monastic houses; violence in the streets.  Spain sends an army thru Italy to maintain order and obedience.  (Much more to the revolt, but not here)

***This is the main thing:  The Netherlands was the most strategic point in Europe for Spain.  From there, control of the North Sea and the approach to the Baltic was possible.  From there, France could be more easily threatened if necessary, and diverted from Italy.  From there, Spain could intervene in Germany if Protestantism continued to strengthen and also to support Austrian branch of Habsburgs.  That and the wealth of the Low Countries, and prestige of the Habsburgs was all at stake. 

Resistance from both Protestant and Catholic nobles...armed action at Heilegerlee (1568).  Surprise rebel victory.  Can't sustain it...money!

Duke of Alba institutes very harsh repression and armed force:

Siege of Leiden 1573-74.  Spanish fail due to weather.

Battle at Mookerheyde 1574.  Spanish victory.

Battle of Gembloux 1578.  Spanish victory.  A key event since this was in the south Neths.  After this, the south gradually was regained for the Crown.

There were many smaller events and numerous sieges with much horrendous behavior on both sides.  Nothing seemed to be decisive.  Because of the financial stress of the old wars with France and the continual operations in Neths., money became a problem.

In 1576, Spanish troops, unpaid, had sacked Antwerp.  In 1578 Duke of Parma came to Neths. as Governor and commander.  Parma was the greatest general of the age, and slowly secured the south Neths. (Belgium and Luxembourg) for the Crown.  By mid 1580s it looked like Spain might have won.

***Now to the Strategic overstretch:

One main part of Spanish policy was upholding Catholic faith and countering Protestantism.  England was aiding Dutch; Plans were made to invade (Armada 1588).

King of Spain had also inherited Portugal (partly by force) 1580; a huge world wide empire just like Spain's.  Seaborne strategy was becoming more important...attacks from English and later Dutch privateers in East Indies and West Indies and Brazil.  More expense and more problems.

Religious Wars in France.  Protestant King Henri IV.  Danger of Protestants winning there.  Parma and Army of Flanders diverted to France to support Catholics.

(Man, this gives you a headache)

By around 1600 it was getting critical.  England could not be defeated;  the Dutch could not be defeated; France was a threat and had almost eliminated the "Spanish Road" from Italy to Neths.; never sure about the Turks.  Money was always a problem.  Most of the military action was sieges and maneuvering; not many battles.  Nothing was decisive.

Turning point may be the siege of Ostend.  This lasted from 1601 to 1604!!!!  Finances for both sides (Sp. and Dutch) critical.  From 1605-06 last Spanish attempt to defeat Dutch unsuccessful.  1607 cease fire; 1609 truce for 12 years.  This was an admission that the Dutch were independent.

Spain retained her position in Neths. on France's flank and with naval presence on Channel & near North Sea.  Could still intervene in Germany.  Critically the Truce did not extend to the seas.  The Dutch were eating Spain's lunch on the trade routes.

1609-1618.  A "cold war."  Armed neutrality and preparations for resuming a number of conflicts.

I'll do 30 YW and the war with france 1635 to 1659 later.  Thanks for patience. 

Ponce and Ikki:

Last installment:

The 12 years truce attempted to weaken Spain's enemies and help Spain recover financially.

In 1618 the religious conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire began the 30 Years War.  Spanish Habsburg troops aided the Emperor in defeating the Protestant rebels in 1620.  Spain still intended to uphold Catholicism and their Austrian Habsburg relatives.  In order to do that they had to have a secure way to cross the Rhine from the Neths.

When the truce w/ the Dutch expired, Spanish troops under Ambrosio Spinola secured a route from the Spanish Neths. by taking the fortress city of Julich on the lower Rhine.  He then moved into the middle Rhine to secure the route to Neths. from Italy.  The war against the Dutch continued as well.

Events:

1622  Julich taken by siege. 

1622  Battle of Fleurus.

1624-25 Siege of Breda in Netherlands, Breda fell to Spain.

In 1625, Spain seemed stronger than ever.  War w/ England resumed and the English were repulsed from an attack on Cadiz.  Breda had fallen, and the Dutch were repelled from an attack against Brazil.  Spain then wanted to take advantage of French internal religious problems and secure north Italy to resecure the road to the Netherlands.

This resulted in the war over Mantua 1629 to 1632.  In 1629 the Dutch had intercepted the Spanish silver fleet from the Americas.  A major blow to Spain.  The Mantuan war was a drain on resources at the same time.

Strain was starting to show.  War in the Netherlands; war in north Germany and along the Rhine; war in Italy; loss of the silver fleet.  Some success was gained in Germany by an Imperial/Spanish army at Nordlingen, 1634, but it did not settle the war in Germany.  France then entered the TYW by declaring war on Spain (which lasted until 1659).  This was the death struggle for France and Spain over which would be supreme in Europe.

In the 1630s there were more failures than successes, but Spain was not ready to quit.  In 1638 and 39, France finally cut the Spanish road to the Netherlands from Italy by gaining control of the upper Rhine (Strasbourg and Breisach).  Spain had to reinforce the Spanish Netherlands by sea, and a large naval battle was fought (the Downs, 1639) where the fleet was devastated by the Dutch. 

In 1643 Spain lost the battle of Rocroi to France (under the Prince de Conde); they lost badly at Lens in 1648.  These were on the Netherlands front.  In the 1640s there were revolts in the Spanish kingdoms in Naples, Portugal and then Catalonia.  Castile, the major force in Spain, was becoming exhausted.

Spain could still make war, but it became progressively harder.  With the defeats above, Reputacion was lost along with credibility, and that affected morale.

When in 1648 Austria and the Imperial Habsburgs made a separate peace with France, and after the loss of the Spanish Road, Germany became of no importance to Spain.  Spain finally recognized Dutch independence in 1648 and concentrated on her French enemy.  That war went on in spite of the "Frondes" in France (1648 to 1652) where some nobles fought the royal government.  The Prince de Conde actually took service with the King of Spain and led Spanish armies.

In 1658, the issue was finally settled when France secured a number of ports in the Spanish Netherlands along the English Channel.  In taking the important port of Dunkirk, there was a battle there (Battle of the Dunes) in 1658 where French Marshal Turenne defeated Conde.  A peace was made in 1659, and Louis XIV married the daughter of the King of Spain, giving him a claim to the Crowns of the Spanish Habsburgs.

All that warfare over all those decades had a disastrous cumulative effect on the finances of royal Spain, the Spanish Netherlands and Spanish Italy (Naples; Milan).  By the later 1660s, the Spanish economy collapsed, there was a collapse of morale and the population was exhausted by taxation and privations.  Spain became a spent force in Europe; the Spanish Habsburgs died out, and the Spanish monarchies became just pawns in the European big power struggle among England, France and Austria.  But Spain did retain a large imperial presence in the Americas for more than 150 years.

That's all, folks!  I do hope you found this interesting and fun.

Spain became exhauseted from all these wars. They had more fighting over in Europe than fighting in their colonies abroad? Maybe they should not have stretched themselves so far. But I would think they could recruit people from their colonies to help them battle wars in Europe too to help them in their conquests no?

Not sure what you are referring to.  All soldiers in service of Spain were not Spaniards.  Very many Italians, Germans, Walloons.  Virtually all were professional soldiers (even if they did have trouble getting paid all the time).  Without the wars of Europe, they had no employment.

The Juntas in Spain understood Spain's strategic interests in Europe as well....Italy, Netherlands, Germany, all were connected to the Habsburg dynasties and to the fate of the Counter Reformation.

The war with Flanders was a war that was instigated by the Hasburgs in Germany no?

--The problem as i see it is that the Hasburgs in Germany were "using" spain to fight all of its conflicts. I do not see the Hasburgs looking into Spain's interests at all. Which to me seems like a shame. Am i right?

The war in Flanders (or the entire Netherlands) was a revolt of Protestant and Catholic subjects of the King of Spain against the Inquisition and vice royal practices.  The Austrian Habsburgs had little to do with it except in support for Spanish Habsburgs.

The Catholic southern Netherlands returned to allegience by the 1580s, but the Dutch fought on to have their independence recognized.

The Austrian Habsburgs had virtually no standing military forces with which to implement their policies (except for war w/ Turks 1593-1606).  The dynasties of Spain and Austria were closely connected, and strong in their support of the Church and the Counter Reformation.

Their interests began to diverge during the Thirty Years War for a number of reasons, and Austria made a separate peace with France while Spain continued to be at war with the French.