October 28 - Battle of Milvian Bridge

On October 28th,312 AD , a battle at the Milvian (Mulvian) Bridge (Saxa Rubra), Rome, between Constantine and Maxentius resulted in victory for Constantine. Most traditions agree on two things - that there was a vision of the �Christian Cross� superimposed on the sun; and that the words "In This Sign, Conquer", "In hoc signo vinces", were experienced by Constantine. Constantine went on to become the Emperor of the Roman Empire. His experience with the �Christian way� led him to make Christianity legal in the Empire. Believers in Christ were no longer persecuted. Now the imperial government recognized and honored the believers. The conversion of Constantine (who was a pagan) assured the church a privileged place in society, and it became easier to be a Christian than not to be one.

For more info, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Milvian_Bridge

STATUE OF LIBERTY DEDICATED:

1886 - On this day, US President Grover Cleveland dedicated the Statue of Liberty (originally known as Liberty Enlightening the World) in New York Harbor. The statue was a gift of friendship to the U.S. from France to commemorate the Franco-American alliance during the American Revolution.

For more info see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_liberty

1940 Italy�s Mussolini foolishly invades Greece - Everyone was surprised by Mussolini�s move against Greece. Despite being warned off an invasion of Greece by his own generals, Mussolini, believing that millions of lire had been put aside to bribe Greek politicians and generals not to resist the Italian invasion (corruption), moved ahead anyway. It is unclear who received the money, but it made no difference because the Greeks were successful in pushing the Italian invaders back to Albania after just one week. Mussolini had been humiliated!

For more info see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Italian_War

Other events on this day:
1492 Christopher Columbus discovers Cuba
1516 Battle of Yaunis Khan . Turkish forces under the Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha defeat the Mameluks near Gaza.
1918 Czechoslovakia gains independence as Austria-Hungary breaks up
1955 William Henry �Bill� Gates, co-founder of Microsoft was born today.
1962 The Cuban Missile Crisis comes to an end

Discoveries/inventions/new technology:
1793 Eli Whitney applies for a patent on the cotton gin
1868 Thomas Edison applied for his first patent, the electric vote recorder.
1904 St Louis police try a new investigation method--fingerprints

Women in History:
1816: Mary Myers Thomas born (physician, reformer: suffrage; U.S. Sanitary Commission service)
1818: Abigail Adams died (First Lady, letter writer, manager)
1917 � Patricia Cain Smith was born. Smith was the first woman to be granted tenure at Cornell University. Her interests were in industrial/organizational psychology, measurement, statistics, and job satisfaction. She developed the Job Descriptive Index, the Retirement Descriptive Index, and the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales.

Oct. 28 1940

ITALY INVADES HELLAS


The very first to die during the invasion was Vasilis Tsiavaliaris born 1912 in Pialia of Trikala, Soldier at that time (sharpshooter) in the 51st Infantry Regiment.. He is the young man standing on the right..

All Greeks feel an outstanding movement when they recall in their memory the epic facts of an heroic era: 1940. Indeed, those great and glorious events sealed with indelible glory the historic evolution of the Hellenic nation.

It is true that the nation feels exceptional pride for the great "NO" on the 28th of October 1940, said by the Hellenic people at the very early dawn of that historic day.

The League of Nations, that supported the hopes of all nations for constant peace, was literally disintegrated and lost any substantial significance, after USA withdrew, in a mood of isolation, from the Organization, followed by Germany in 1939, Italy in 1935, as well as an antagonism in showing "peace loving" attitude by the rest of the Western Democracies, mainly England and France, that could not timely foresee and realize the coming threat of war.

It was the beginning of a campaign which everybody uses to call it "Epic", and which covered one of the most glorious parts of the age-long Hellenic history, containing, in plenty, the two elements which, in general, compose history, that is the events and the essence of that era. The events have already been recorded by historians, so as those interested in history may resort to them and draw the right conclusions, and the future historians may restore them, even after centuries. The essence, however, as the protagonists of history felt it, i.e. all the Hellenic people during the time when the events actually occurred, is swept by the winds of time, even for those who actually lived these facts.

The Hellenic Epic of 1940, a phenomenon psychologically and historically unexpected for the entire world, was unjustly treated by the events that followed : occupation, resistance, executions, the December 1944 coup, the first post-war years, the outburst of the nuclear era, these were facts that shadowed the previous deeds, sealing, and locking-in that chapter of history, before having the chance to explore its monumental significance, a chapter that was only opened after the country�s liberation from the German boot.

The generation of the '40s proved, once more, that the sacred passion for the freedom of the country is the ultimate duty for all Greeks, who have repeatedly proved it during their age-long existence, and they will not cease to do the same, as long as they live in this beautiful country.

Since the beginning of the century, the hostile intentions of Italy against Greece became evident, and the hypocritical effort to conceal them, very poor. The outbreak of this hypocrisy was the torpedoing of the historic cruiser of the Hellenic Fleet "ELLI", anchoring at the island of Tinos on the 15th of August 1940, despite the "friendship pact" signed by the two countries in September 1928. Mussolini had probably believed that with impudence he could disarm dignity, with hypocrisy he could eliminate the passion for freedom, and with the military strength the sacred duty for the Hellenic soldier to preserve the freedom of his country. He believed he could give expression to a dream from the past : the reconstitution of the Roman Empire, or at least the Venetian naval supremacy.

Since 1923, Greece, deeply wounded after its campaign and disaster to Asia Minor, made efforts to assimilate one and a half million refugees and reconstruct its economy and politics.

Since April 1939, fascist Italy had seized Albania, attempting through prevarication, digressions, diplomatic maneuvers, retractions and self contradictions, to conceal its expansionist intentions against Greece. Seizure of Albania was natural to put the two neighboring countries, Greece and Yugoslavia, to great uneasiness, since the threat was not from Italy alone, but the Axis as well, the establishment of which had already been declared by Mussolini himself since 1936.

England in the meantime, through its Premier Chamberlain, the Minister of Foreign Affairs Lord Halifax and the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill and France, through its Prime Minister Daladier, gave plenty of reassuring guaranties for the integrity of Greece, that were unfortunately destined to prove purely academic. All these led to the conclusion that Greece had to stand alone, and get prepared to face an imminent conflict, to preserve its own independence.

The Hellenic General Staff had good reasons not to be inactive. Although cooperation had been requested from the British and French General Staffs, it was only limited in gathering intelligence, without any practical continuation, leaving finally Greece dramatically alone to its peninsula, to face despotism once more alone.

In August 1939, under the pretext of military maneuvers, the Italian forces concentrated along the Hellenic-Albanian border line, and this brought uneasiness to the Hellenic General Staff and forced it to propose to the Hellenic Government to proceed to mobilization of the VIII and IX Divisions, stationed opposite the Albanian border line. On the previous day, the non-aggression German-Soviet Pact had been signed in Moscow, that indicated that the Axis could undistractedly and undistrurbedly act at the West and the South.

On the 29th of August 1939, the Italian Military Attache requested from the Chief of the Hellenic General Staff Alexandros Papagos information concerning the concentration of Hellenic troops, whereas he offered assurances on behalf of Italy, that the guarantee that had been given concerning the inviolability of Hellenic territory still held.

Europe on the Eve of October 28^th, 1940

The intentions of the Axis were revealed three days later. On the 1st of September 1939, Germany launched a sudden attack on Poland. The Second World War had begun. The results, to some extent, justified Hitler�s calculations on the cravenness of the allies, who would not support Poland, so that it fall prey to its ferocious aggressive greed of the Axis, and perhaps satiate it. Poland was taken in twenty days and partitioned between Hitler and Stalin. Some of the Balkan States, afraid that they were to be found at the path of the storm, declare neutrality, while others make a show of good behavior; on the other hand, Greece finds out that its dramatic isolation is ever increasing, and as a consequence, it bears the weight of its responsibility towards its traditions and history.

During the time that followed, the two partners of the Axis intensified their efforts to mislead Greece. Italy continued its preparations for the violation of the Hellenic independence; however, the sudden commencement of the war by Hitler and his lightning successes on the battlefields, made Italy lose its temper and try something impressive at this stage, in order to get some benefits, as it felt that the war would be over.

In summer 1940, Italy, apart form its overwhelming supremacy in numbers, also had:

• The initiative with regard to commencement of the operations, in other words, the unrivaled advantage of surprise.

• Overwhelming air supremacy, seven times more, which combined, with the modern, for that time, aircraft, coming particularly from the factories of Fiat, meant the spare parts were in abundance.

• A great number of mobile armored units.

• War supplies stored in Albania greatly in excess of the needs of the existing troops.

• Capability of unhindered transport of more troops through the Adriatic.

There ensued an effort by Mussolini to provoke Greece and find pretext of war, well planned in such a way as to gradually escalate, whereas the provocation stepped up:

• Bombing of Hellenic war ships, including the destroyer "Hydra".

• Incessant violation of the Hellenic air space.

• The Italian Press publishes in large headlines that: "Daut Hodja, the great Albanian patriot, has been murdered on the Hellenic-Albanian border by Hellenic agents". (Daut Hodja was a well-known bandit, wanted for over twenty years, who was killed in a brawl by two Albanians who had actually been arrested by Hellenic authorities two months earlier).

• On the 14th of August, Gaida, a well known journalist and mouth-piece of the fascist party, in one of his articles of the Government-controlled Italian press, gave the war cry: All-out attack on Greece. - Italy had discarded the mask.

• On the next day, the 15th of August 1940, the coward act of torpedoing the cruiser "ELLI" followed at the harbor of the isle of Tinos.

This last challenge, a sacrilegious act, symbolically inaugurated the attack on Greece and lent a sacred aspect to the struggle that followed.

On the 22nd of October, at the Foreign Ministry in Rome, Ciano began to prepare the infamous ultimatum, which was to be handed to the Hellenic government, which allowed no compromise, but only "either they would accept the occupation or the invasion would be carried out".

The cruiser "Elli".

The Hellenic General Staff could not finalize the defense of the country, the way it would like to, mainly for two reasons :

• Any major move, would be taken by Mussolini as provocation.

• Italy had the initiative to commence operations, but it was not known just when the Italians would make that move, whereas a mobilization, with possible prolonged maintaining of forces, would weaken the army�s morale and would be a strain on the country�s economy.

The daybreak of 28th October the Hellenic people did not know what it had been preceded from three on the morning at the house of the Prime Minister, or the decisions taken by the Cabinet, but even when at six o�clock the sirens woke the city of Athens, the crowds were shed at the street as if they were expected that very moment to cry in a thundering voice the historic "NO", a unanimous choice that could not be different.

The first war report had been released on the radio and published in special newspaper releases, giving the tone of solid dignity to the whole matter: "The Italian forces attack, since 5.30 this morning, our own troops at the Hellenic -Albanian borderline. Our forces defend our home land".

A feeling of euphoria was shed over the sky of Attica, coming from everyone, who felt that three thousand years of history were calling him by name to defend them. The new was passed from month to month "War! The Italians are invading". The feelings succeeded one another; pride, honor, bravery, indignation, contempt, not only from those who ran to join the army, but also from the non-combatant population, who later offered valuable services to the struggle.

The morning of 28th October something really great rose up in Greece, which if it could be seen by the arrogant Italian dictator, he would prefer to withdraw his forces from the Albanian ground, and modify his operational plans in general.

No-one could predict the course the confrontation would take, although the indications, could reasonably persuade that, sooner or later, the attacker would prevail.

Leaving for the front.

"...ahead, Hellas is risen, spreading darkness away! Humanity has risen, follow her, ahead..." A. Sikelianos

On the day of the invasion, the first telegrams to arrive were from George VI of England: "Your affairs are our affairs"; from Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of England. "Italy has found her threats useless against your calm courage"; from Mackenzie King, the Prime Minister of Canada: "The cradle of the noblest civilization that mankind has known, when the country to which we owe whatever is fine and beautiful in life, is being attacked, the place of all true men is at its side".

Mother's amulet.

France, already silenced by the German occupation, broadcast from the free radio station of Africa the following: "We improve the Greeks not to think that the French are indifferent concerning the fate of their glorious country".

Even Turkey, and the whole of its Press, was exultant: "Long live Greece". On 29th October, the newspaper "Ikdam" wrote: "We are proud to be joined in an alliance with such a nation"; and the "Vakit" referred to Greece as "unmemorable example of bravery for the whole world".

From the distant India the impact reaches: "The future of the Balkans depends on the fate of Greece".

In the Hellenic communities abroad, the enthusiasm was irrepressible. In Constantinople, Cyprus and Egypt conscripts Present themselves to the Hellenic consular authorities and asked to be sent to Greece to fight.

"PINDOS": the two-syllable Hellenic name containing the most beautiful meaning: the unlimited faith to freedom.

"Giulia", the selected Italian Division, launched an assault against our country at the steep mountain peaks of Northern Pindos, to make a quick advance to Ioannina, as the Italian General Staff believed and facilitate "the convenient promenade" of the rest of the Italian divisions to Athens. The surprise, though, of Mussolini�s "brave" quickly changed into disappointment, when the entrenched Hellenic soldiers at the guard posts did not provide them the kind of receptions they wished, but heavy fires. What sort of reception did they expect anyway?

Only this I will tell, nothing more: get 'intoxicated' with the immortal wine of 1821. (K. Palamas)

As it is known, the Epirus Division bore the complete burden of the defense; it was the one, which alone among the Great Powers had the lack and the honor to defend the integrity of the country, its main mission being "the coverage of central Greece, to the direction of Ioannina "Zigos Metsovou" and the secondary "the defense of national ground". This Division, carrying out Major General Haralambos Katsimitros� decision, did not abandon the forward defense line and fought there, without ceding an inch of national ground.

An extract of the Nr 30904 General Order of the VIII Division, dated 30th October 1940 is quoted below (Maj. Gen. H. Katsimitros):

"We fight against a cunning and coward enemy, who suddenly attacked us without a pretext in order to subjugate us. We fight for our houses, our families and our freedom. Officers and enlisted men, keep your positions steadily and decisively looking forward, since in a short time we are going to counter-attack in order to throw out the enemy from our native soil that gets infected by their presence"... The day that the dastard and coward foe will be thrown to the sea reaches. Keep strongly your positions and this is going to take place soon. Order to be notified to all the Officers and enlisted men servicing under air orders".

An extract taken from the Agenda of the above Division, on 18th November 1940 quotes:

"Soldiers, remember what you used to say during my inspections, concerning the time you would attack to expel the enemy. The time has come. With God�s blessings and assistance, ferociously haunt the enemy, the dastard and coward enemy. You have already known him very well. He is impudent and cunning. Smash him with your cruel blows. Our birthplace proudly watches your sacred struggle. Glory belongs to you!"

The willing and volunteering participation of the population of PINDOS, old men, women, young girls and children, to the ultimate effort to resupply the fighter, is one of the most beautiful expressions of the national rise those dramatic days. Th. Papakonstantinou "The Battle of Greece"

It would be a neglect not to refer to the essential assistance offered to be struggle by the heroic detachment of Colonel Davakis, that vigorously defending with a few poorly equipped soldiers, who displayed, though, exceptional self-sacrifice and courage, repelled the successive attacks of the enemy, offering at the same time valuable time to the Hellenic Army to assemble its forces and counter offense expelling the invaders beyond the Albanian borderline, at the historic ground of Northern Epirus.

Those who acted badly, are taken by the black cloud. But the one who met the road of heaven, now climbs alone and bright. Poem by Odysseas Elytis

On 1st November, during the counter offense launched by the heroic Pindos Detachment the Line "Giftissa-Oxia" was recaptured three Italian officers and two hundred twenty two (222) enlisted men were captured, whereas one hundred and forty (140) animals came in possession of the Hellenic groups as well as a large quantity of supplies; it was there however that the first Hellenic officer, Alexandros Diakos, fell leaving his last breath.



Alexandros Diakos

From the first days of the war lack of supplies began to make itself felt, especially in supplies for the Air Force. The English support was completely insufficient. The English militiamen had directed their interest almost exclusively, at the defense of Crete, where infantry forces and air-defense means had been sent from Middle East the first days of the war.

On 14th November, the Hellenic counter-offensive began along the front advancing to Albania. The successive capture of cities and villages of Northern Epirus occupied the first pages of the free press, in Great Britain and the United States of America and other countries, whereas at the same time Central Europe was under the foot on the German Army, that had already captured Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Netherlands and almost half of France.

The unexpected Hellenic successes had serious implications on the policy of England, that at about the middle of November decided to strengthen the front. The English Ambassador to Athens, was of the opinion that the Hellenic front, as it had been formed, following the heroic successes of the Hellenic Army, offered an exceptional chance to England to more there the theater of operations against Italy.

Frontpage of the "ASYRMATOS" newspaper on Nov 22, 1940.

Frontpages of 1940 newspapers.

Suddenly, Greece became the focus of the worldwide Public Opinion. Greece became the breakwater against the horror and the general belief of the European peoples, that the victory of the iron- clad and armed to the teeth nazis and fascist armies was certain and that the isolated England was not able to stop the terrific German military mechanism.

The successful outcome of this daring decision and the psychic force that Greece sustained for a long time, contributed to refuting the legend about "the invincible of the Axis", and at the same time a change of estimations took place concerning the evolution of the war, positively affecting the diplomatic field. Countries which were assumed to participate in the war at the side of the Axis, started to show hesitancy as to their participation or not, or even denial. In the edition of 28th November the "Times" wrote: "The Greek victories had a tremendous impact at the Near East... The concerns about an Italian invasion in Egypt were removed whereas Mussolini, considered as something significant in the popular imagination, because a comic figure".

From now on we won�t claim that the Greeks fight like heroes, but that heroes fight like Greeks. Manchester Guardian, 19-4-1941

It would be a neglect not to mention the participation of the navy in the struggle, despite the great difference there was compared to the Italian navy, in terms of number, armor, speed, fire power and sailing time for the submarines. Despite the above disadvantages the Hellenic vessels carried out their difficult task without serious casualties. They sunk enemy transport vessels of a deadweight tonnage of several tens of thousands of tons and successfully convoyed through escort military missions to the front. At Christmas, the submarine "Papanikolis", under Lieutenant- Commander Iatrides, hit an Italian convoy on its way to Avlon; two troopships of between 15,000 and 20,000 tons were hit and sunk. The submarine managed to escape despite the cruel pursuit by Italian cruisers. A few days later, the submarine "Protefs", under lieutenant Hatzikonstantis, sunk an Italian troopship that carried military forces to Albania, to be rammed afterwards with all hands on board by an Italian cruiser. On New Year�s day the submarine "Lambros Katsonis", under Lieutenant-Commander Spanides, set fire on an Italian tanker, whereas "Papanikolis" sunk off the coast of Printizi an Italian troopship. Similar successes had the submarine "Nirefs", the torpedo boat "Sfendoni", the cruiser "Psara" and the submarine "Triton".

As far as the Air Force is concerned, that as it was mentioned earlier, had airplanes which were in their majority old or obsolete, with few airports, unsuitable for use most of the time and with air- defense at an elementary level, it would not be an exaggeration to say that at the level it operated, accomplishing significant achievements, that was due to the bravery of the air-crews. The flights of the Hellenic airmen, at law highs in the gorges of the maintains, "the paths of the sky", and their achievements, remained famous as that of first lieutenant Mikralexis who having used all his ammunition, he deliberately riveted the controls of an Italian bomber using the propeller of his aircraft; he shot it down, landed next to the Italian airmen, which had used their parachutes, he captured and took them as prisoners of war at the Military Command of Thessaloniki.

Following the inglorious end of the Italian operations at the Albanian front, a series of startling events, agreeable for Greece and its allies in general, took place. On 27th March, democratic forces, had risen up, overthrew the Regency and the government of Cretkoric, who had been sided in favor of the Axis, and Young Peter II was proclaimed as king. Two days later, a general mobilization was announced. All these events showed that Yugoslavia would fight against the imminent German invasion or that at least it would remain neutral. Eventually, Yugoslavia made up its mind to stand and fight on the side of the allies against the Italians, who in a state of embarrassment tried to keep Northern Albania, thus closing this open wound. This common Hellenic-Yugoslavian plan, however, was not implemented, since Germany put into effect operation "Marita", not to save its Italian allies from final humiliation, but, at the same time, to catch up an unpleasant reactions of the Russians, as it suspected they would do. Indeed at 5.15 on Sunday 6 April 1941 the German attack against Greece started, simultaneously with an ultimatum delivered to the Hellenic administration, emphasizing that the purpose of the German action was to throw the British out of Greece. But, faith to the right and the just of the national pursues multiplied again mental strength, giving the country the ability to rise against the German army, though it was humanly impossible, despite the Hellenic resistance, to face the superior German abilities.

"The Germans were astonished by the Hellenic defense, and characterized it as glorious. Before seeing the fortresses, they thought they were even superior to the French Mazino line. But when they had a close look at them, they stayed surprised by the very few numbers of personnel in them. How few canons, ammunitions, and how great was the impression of a large fire power and plenty of means! The actual shortage of means, made the enemy understand how significant bravery was in that war. General Baumme, that himself conducted the battle, could not believe his own eyes when he sees only 120 Hellenic soldiers at Perithori having captured 300 German prisoners". Extract from C. Zalokostas: "Roupel".

The morning of 27 April the first German troops entered Athens, heading to the Acropolis to fly the flag. That very moment the State Athens Radio Station was emitting the last free broadcast: "Greek citizens, in a few moments this station will cease being Hellenic... Brothers, keep your hearts high..."

A new circle of martyrs began for the capital and the country.

It was the last conflict in the Continent, with unbalanced forces, means, and weapons. On the one side, Goliath, heavily armed with contemporary weapons and tall modern technologies. On the opposite side, David, with obsolete means, but knowing by tradition how to fight for its right. To this struggle, Greece gave once more its personal style, similar to that in 1821, a struggle between arrogance and love for freedom, imperialism and passion for liberty.

The breeze around the temple may eternally gather the endless parade of the heroes, British, Americans, Polish, Russians, free French, Hollanders, Belgians, Norwegians, having a Hellenic warrior at the head of the parade, the truest son of freedom, whose shout "aera" will always fly over seas and mountains. C. Mackenzie: "The Wind of Freedom"

Technology, thanks to its immense capabilities, will succeed to force courage to kneel, but this situation will soon get reversed. The Hellenic front collapsed in 1941, but during the years 1941-44 the Nation continued fighting the Axis in every possible way, in occupied Greece, in North Africa, in Italy and the Aegean islands.

Thus is how the Epic War has been created, the glory and pride of the Hellenic Nation, that was no miracle at all, as many used to believe : it was the result of a tight, attentive and methodical military preparedness, a moral training and orientation of the Hellenic people, the result of which was the rise of the moral of the Armed Forces for a dynamic and victorious defense.

It is a reality that the League of Nations did not manage to impede the catastrophe of the II World war, but it gave lieu to the United Nations Organization, with a more complete legal and executive power, under an international character, with 144 members, and the ambition, among other things, to "secure peace and safety globally". In order that this Organization survives and fulfills its mission, all members should support it and comply with the Security Council�s Resolutions. Those who do not wish to comply, should be aware of the penalties they are face, as something that will deter them of doing illegal actions.

Contemporary Greece faces open threats from a neighboring country, whose leadership, through constant, clandestine and methodical efforts try to intervene, when the right coincidence comes, ignoring all international reactions and resolutions. The chauvinistic and expansionist attempts against Greece cannot constitute a solution, unless we remain still, with internal instability, ungrounded orientations that will weaken our armed forces. We wish there will be no other epic war that would be added to the Hellenic history.

From the Hellinic Army General Staff..

I was under the impression that Constantine converted to Christianity on his deathbed.

You're right, though even this is debated. It may have just been a Christian claim to justify the pretenstions of their party, anyhow, clearly favored by Constantine in his late period.

Let's not forget about the dedication of the Statue of Liberty from the time when France still liked Americans without German intervention.