By Dr. H. K. Poklaung

Keeping their identity as a Champa people  is the main concern of the Champa immigrants in the United States. Here in America, they have to face the problems of adjustment to a new environment which is known as a melting pot where various cultures of different groups of people are blended together in their daily activities.

Before going through the fact of how  these Champa immigrants adjust themselves to a new society in the United States, I would like to go through their history of adjustment in the past.

We know that Champa Kingdom lost its land and control to vietnam fully 1835 not in 1471 date of which Manguin believes that the alleged "disappearance"of Champa after 1471 is nothing but a myth².

 In 1594 Champa was still strong enough to help the Malay state of Johor resist Portuguese attack and Champa merchants continued to frequent the ports of Southeast Asie throughout the seventeenth century. Champa's cultural life continued to the develop autonomously, and even a distinct Champa's territory was not directly absorbed until 1834-5¹, or by one account, as late as 1883 during the French conquest².

Then since 1832, when Panduranga, the last territory of Champa, was annexed by vietnam, the people of Champa have been encountering a new situation. Their victors would like to dismantle their culture and destroy their history. In fact, the social, cultural and economical structures of Champa people still persist and quite different from those of their victors. Despite all kind of pressure, Champa people continued to preserve their cultural identity by speaking their own language, observing their own customs , wearing their traditional dress, practicing their religions. They lived in villages and social groups separately from their victors. They autonomously took care of their  internal affairs. They were reluctant to the interference of strangers (vietnamese)who attemted to settle their litigical problems.

During French rule in Indochina, the identity of Champa people was recognized and restored but unfortunately they recieved separate names as "Cham" and "Montagnards" who both in reality belonged to one nation "Nagara Champa" and to one people "ura Champa" since they have inherited the same Hindoue civilization, spoken languages which belong to the Malayo-polynesian group of languages, have the same complexion and finally stood shoulder to shoulder in the defense of Champa's territory before the invasions ennemies³

After French withdrawal in 1954, the government of Baiguar (saigon) exeted its policy of assimilation toward all ethnic minorities in Champa (southvietnam), especially ethnic Cham who were considered as dangerous elements to the current regime. Champa people were forced to wear vietnamese sounded dress, change their family name to vietnamese sounded names, give up their traditional customs and practices, speak vietnamese. Vietnamese warlords confiscated at will Champa people's land in the highlands, regrouped and locked them in "strategic hamlets", deprived them of human rights such as rights to own property, rights to move freely from one place to another, rights to speak up their being treated unjustly. Baigaur (saigon) rejected their claims on their lands, stifled their protests, suppressed their demonstrations, put them in jail, deported their leaders to a remote island (con son) and inflicted on them atrocities of all kinds.

The politics of oppression of Baigaur (saigon) toward ethnic minorities in SVN(Champa) brought about a movement of resistance from ethnic minorities, the formation of a front named "Front Unifie de Lute des Races Opprimee" or F.U.L.R.O who called the ethnic groups in SVN(Champa) to stand up and take arms to fight the vietnamese oppresors. Joining the Front were the people of Champa originally from the Highlands and the coast as well as Champa people living in Cambodia. FULRO's aims are to claim back Champa people's land, emancipate their people and restore their traditions and practices. After several successful military operations in the highlands of Indrapura (quang duc) and Buan Mathuat(ban me thuot) in 1963-64, FULRO became very soon a target of attack from Baiguar(saigon) and Hanoi. Though not obtaining all claims it had expected, FULRO succeeded anyway in getting some concessions from Baigaur(saigon) in the implementtation of an official and parastatic organization called Toan An Phong Tuc Thuong (Judiciary Court of Traditions and Customs for the Montagnards) that overlapped and vetoed the Governor's decisions concerning the Montagnard's customs and traditions.

Besides, Baigaur(saigon) agreed to create a ministery for the development of the Ethnic minorities' affairs who took care of the ethnic groups' business in SVN(Champa). But this liberal policy of Baigaur(saigon) did not last long because in 1975 SVN fell under the control of the Communists. Today, under Socialist Democratic Republic of vietnam (ie vietnamese communists) nothing guarantees that Hanoi keeps applying its liberal policy toward ethnic minorities in SVN(Champa) as promised during vietnams war.

Champa people in Cambodia, especially ethnic Cham, can not be left out of consideration since they have inherited the same cultural legacy as did their Champa brothers in SVN(Champa).The Khmer Royal Chronicles mentions a large number of Champa people refugees in Khmer Kingdom after their military defeat in Vijaya(qui nhon) in 1471 AD to the vietnamese troops of Le Thanh Ton. Those who did not want to live under vietnamese rule fled up to Mountainous areas where they spent the rest of their lives with their comrads in arms: Sdiang, Rhade, Jarai, Bahnar, Sedang...(Note that Champa was a multi ethnic nation that included different ethnic  groups such as Cham, Rhade, Jarai, Chru, R'glai, K'ho, http://www.champa.org/activities/geschichte_champa_sdiangs.htm - Sdiang , Hroy, Bahnar, Sedang...)

http://www.champa.org/activities/Bilder/champa7.jpg"> A second wave of migration of about five thousand Champapeoples families led by Champa Royal dignitaries to Cambodia took place in 1692, date of which the vietnamese troup took over northern part of Panduranga(phanrang). King Jayajetha III (1677-1709) of Cambodia granted them the request for a refuge. They settled in the area of Oudong-form capital of Cambodia in the province of Thbaung Khmum and of Stung Trang, at the places of Chroy Changvar, Prek Pra etc..¹

A third wave of migration of Champa people refugees to Cambodia, and probably the largest one, happened in late 1790 when Tay Son troops waged war against Nguyen Anh's followers on Champa's land, causing death to thousand of innocent Champa people.

The last wave of migration of Champa people to Cambodia, as the Khmer Royal Chronicles noted it, occured in 1835 when king of vietnam, minh mang(1820-41) suppressed and massacred mercilessly Champa rebels against his regime.

Once arrived at Cambodia, Champa people refugees built up their villages, formed their own communities which, like their compatriots in Champa's land lived separately from the rest of the population in order to preserve their languages, their practices and their religion of Islam while Khmer people are Buddhists.Champa people descendants in O'Russey today still use Champa script and practiced a deviated  Islam called Bani (meaning children in arabic²)

It is common for a minority who lives in a dominant society to react against any force or pressure that attempts to destroy its cultural identity, particularly the religion of its people. And it is because of the strong determination of preserving their traditions and values, their customs and practices, and of protecting their autonomous lives that Champa people in Cambodia rebeled against Khmer authority at the end of the sixteenth century under the rule of King Paramarja V (Cau Bana Tan) 1597-99. In the seventeenth century, muslim Champa people in Cambodia fought successfully to bring King Ramadhapati I (1642-58) to the throne. He later embraced Islam under the name of Ibrahim and married a beautiful Muslim girl in Kleang Sbeck. In 1782, Champa community once again made its name echoe in the Khmer Royal Chronicle by their attack against the local authority in Oudong.

In 1858, Champa community revolted against Khmer authority in Thbaung Khmum. Champa force was repressed, one of their leaders killed, their remnants fled to Moat Chrouk (chau doc, southwesternvietnam) and settled there¹. Under the rule of Prince Shianouk, Champa people were given "Khmer Islam", a term that does not reflect the reality of their identity.

Under the rule of Khmer Rouges (1975-79), the plight of Champa people got worse than ever. Khmer Rouges massacred Champa people's villagers, dispersed the survivors, and banned the Champa language, customs, and religion. In short, Khmer Rouges' aims were to exterminate Champa's race, destroy their culture, to do away with their identity. The politics of discrimination and overall destruction toward the Champa people under Khmer Rouges' regime caused Champa people revolts in different places such as Koh Phol, Chumnik, etc. Whose consequences were the killings en mass of Champa's villagers, the plundering of their homes².

Actually unlike Pol Pot, Heng Samrin applies a more liberal policy toward minority Champa people in Cambodia: Their religion restored, their language respoken, their values respected, their rights restated. There were 22 Muslim Champa people from Cambodia went: to perform Pilgrimage (Haj) in Mekka in 1989, and 21 others in 1990¹.

The above summary about  the history of Champa people in their continous struggle for their cultural identity highlights their attitude toward change and adjustment to new environment. Champa people, under any circumstance, do not want to lose the traditional legacy handed down to them by their ancestors.

Let us examine how Champa people immigrants adjust themselves to American society in California based on their spirit and attitude just highlighted above.

 Cambodians. They do not want to be integrated to any other community except those who are married with non-Champa spouses.

Actually there are about 2,000 Champa refugees in California. They are distinctly grouping in 4 areas: more than 300 in Sata Ana city (on Grant and S. Milmie St.); more than 300 in Fullerton city (on West Ave.) more than 300 in San Francisco city, sparsely locating; and about 100 in San Jose city. Since their number is insignificant to the vietnamese and Cambodian refugges who are of hundred thousand in California, These Champa refugees are lost or hidden identifiably. In fact, their identity of Champa peolpe has been denied since they were in refugee camps in Thailand or Malaysia. They were either of vietnamese or Cambodian nationality on their tracing cards. However their conditions are unique and distinct.

As we have seen ealier, Champa people live separately from vietnamese and Cambodian communities in SVN(Champa) and in Cambodia. Here, in California they are doing the same. They form their own communities in order to preserve their religion and cultural identity.

Though being in a very small number, Champa refugees in California do not feel out of their cirle since in public relations they still have a way out by contacting the vietnamese or Cambodian refugees. Those speak vietnamese prefer to approach the vietnameses and those who lived in Cambodia before prefer to make friend with

Campa people's adjustment to American society is very complex. It depends on their level of education, their former activisties, their religion, their age and sex. A majority of Champa refugees in the United States in general, and in California in particular, are not intellectuals.

They have hard times adjusting themselves to highly technological society of America. In Champa (svn) and Cambodia, they got a slim religious education of Islam and did not have any worldly education. Those who got a vietnamese, Cambodian and French education are able to adjust to American society after a short period of schooling. Campa students will have more chance to improve their lot than the adult and old aged Campa refugees.

Another factor that contributes to the socialization or unsocialization of Campa refugees is religion. Exept Campa refugees who are brahmanists, Campa muslims are reluctant to socialize with a non Muslim. They do not acceptany unislamic precept since they are taught that Islam is not only a religion but also a perfect way of life. It is also the reason why Champa people lead an autonomous life which is almost in isolation from the rest of people around them.

After religion, kindship plays also a very important role in the socialization of Campa people. Matrilocal and matrilineal sytem of Campa social structure is still in effect in Campa Muslim society. Campa females used to stay home to raise their children. This prevent them from going out and socializing with others. In addition to it, islamic law seclude female muslim from males. Since a majority of Campa refugees in the United States are muslims, Campa females used to visit other Campa females who are usually their parents.

Age is another important factor that help or prevent Campa refugees in their adjustment. The adult and aged adujst with difficulty to the American society. They have the feelings that they arelocked in house since they are not able to drive or to move to wherever they like. In fact, America is so wide that they do not know where to go. They feel so lonely that they want to go back to their homeland where they can chat with their relatives. Meanwhile Campa children and youth adjust easily to a new society. In school, Campa children have  fun with their classmates and socialize without difficulty. But their acculturation is a danger to their parents who are faithful to their milenary culture. Cultural conflicts between old and young generation in Champa families create a disharmonious atmosphere of misunderstanding. Children used to reject their parents' ideas which they thought are outmoded and useless. Children's attitudes and behaviors in mimicking another culture disappoint Champa parents. This situation makes Campa refugees realize that they should move close to one another and live in an autonomous community in order to maintain their religious and cultural legacy.

Despite all difficulties and disadvantages in a new land like America Champa immigrants adjust well to a new society. A small number of them becomes owners of Donut shop, of auto repair shop, auto dealer, some becom assistant teachers; one works at a law office; one runs a pharmacy; two own grocery trucks; many work in manufactures and factories.

The loss of their homeland which they cannot claim back incites  them ot hang on their religious and cultural legacy deemed to be their only source of hope and expectations. And because of the difficulties they're facing in the adjustment to a new society that Campa people stick together to their own values and traditions which they use for intellectual and spiritual uplift needed for their struggle for survival. These explain why every association estabishes by them in a host country carries unanimously the cultural and social vocation.