How Zombies Work

by Tracy V. Wilson

Browse the article How Zombies Work

Like a lot of monsters, zombies have their roots in folklore and -- according to some researchers -- in real events in Haiti. In this article, we'll discuss Haitian zombies, explore depictions of zombies in films and video games and review the best course of action for surviving an attack.

Zombie OriginsThere are several possible origins for the word "zombie." These include jumbie, the West Indian term for "ghost," and nzambi, the Kongo word meaning "spirit of a dead person."

Haitian Zombies

Zora Neale Hurston is one of many ethnographers who have documented the traditions and beliefs of Haitian voodoo.

Zombies are common in Haitian stories and folklore. Researchers studying Haitian culture have related countless tales of bodies brought back to life by bokor, or sorcerers. These zombies are mindless slaves. They are not self-aware and are not particularly dangerous unless fed salt, which restores their senses. These stories are widespread and similar to urban legends -- they prey on the listener's deepest fears and seem believable in spite of their improbability.

Even after documenting numerous stories and rumors, researchers found little solid evidence to explain or prove the phenomenon. Often, the alleged zombies had received little or no medical care before their apparent deaths. Researchers also had trouble ruling out mistaken identity and fraud.

In 1980, a man appeared in a rural Haitian village. He claimed to be Clairvius Narcisse, who had died in Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Deschapelles, Haiti on May 2, 1962. Narcisse described being conscious but paralyzed during his presumed death -- he had even seen the doctor cover his face with a sheet. Narcisse claimed that a bokor had resurrected him and made him a zombie.

VoodooVoodoo is a Haitian religion rooted in West African traditions. Also called voudou, vodun or voudoun, it bears little resemblance to voodoo as depicted in popular culture. You can learn more about the myths and facts of voodoo in How Voodoo Works.

Since the hospital had documented Narcisse's illness and death, scientists viewed him as a potential proof for Haitian zombies. Narcisse answered questions about his family and childhood that not even a close friend could have known. Eventually, his family and many outside observers agreed that he was a zombie returned to life.

Dr. Wade Davis has chronicled his studies of Haitian zombies
in "The Serpent and the Rainbow" and "The Passage of Darkness."

Narcisse was the impetus for the Zombie Project -- a study into the origins of zombies conducted in Haiti between 1982 and 1984. During that time, ethnobotanist and anthropologist Dr. Wade Davis traveled through Haiti in the hopes of discovering what causes Haitian zombies.

Next, we'll look at what Davis discovered.

Zombies and Haitian LawA law that seems to condemn zombie creation went into effect in Haiti in 1835 [ref]. Article 246 of the Haitian Penal Code classifies the administration of a substance that creates a prolonged period of lethargy without causing death as attempted murder. If the substance causes the appearance of death and results in the burial of the victim, the act is classified as murder.

Haitian Zombie Powder

Salt and ZombiesAccording to Haitian folklore, feeding salt to a zombie will return it to its senses. Often the zombie then attacks the bokor who created it or returns to its place of burial and dies. Ironically, tetrodotoxin works by blocking the sodium channels in muscle and nerve cells. However, there is no known cure for tetrodotoxin poisoning, and the amount of sodium in a few grains of salt is unlikely to have any physiological effect on a poisoned person.

Davis traveled to Haiti at the request of Dr. Nathan S. Kline, who theorized that a drug was responsible for Narcisse's experiences as a zombie. Since such a drug could have medical uses, particularly in the field of anesthesiology, Kline hoped to gather samples, analyze them and determine how they worked.

Davis learned that Haitians who believed in zombies believed that a bokor's sorcery -- not a poison or a drug -- created them. According to local lore, a bokor captures a victim's ti bon ange, or the part of the soul directly connected to an individual, to create a zombie. But during his research, Davis discovered that the bokor used complex powders, made from dried and ground plants and animals, in their rituals.

Davis collected eight samples of this zombie powder in four regions of Haiti. Their ingredients were not identical, but seven of the eight samples had four ingredients in common:

Photo courtesy MBL Marine Biology Laboratory A puffer fish, an ingredient in zombie powder.

• One or more species of puffer fish, which often contain a deadly neurotoxin called tetrodotoxin
• A marine toad (Bufo marinus), which produces numerous toxic substances
• A hyla tree frog (Osteopilus dominicensis), which secretes an irritating (but not deadly) substance
• Human remains

In addition, the powders contained other plant and animal ingredients, like lizards and spiders, which would be likely to irritate the skin. Some even included ground glass.

The use of puffer fish intrigued Davis. Tetrodotoxin causes paralysis and death, and victims of tetrodotoxin poisoning often remain conscious until just before death. The paralysis prevents them from reacting to stimuli -- much like what Clairvius Narcisse described about his own death. Doctors have also documented cases in which people ingested tetrodotoxin and appeared dead but eventually made a complete recovery.

Photo courtesy USGS Bufo marinus, an ingredient in zombie powder.

Davis theorized that the powder, applied topically, created irritation and breaks in the victim's skin. The tetrodotoxin could then pass into the bloodstream, paralyzing the victim and causing him to appear dead. The family would bury the victim, and the bokor would remove the body from the grave. If all had gone well, the poison would wear off and the victim would believe himself to be a zombie.

While Davis's theory is promising, it does have some holes. Next, we'll look at the controversy surrounding Davis's research.

Nature vs. Nurture? Photo courtesy USDA Datura stramonium, also known as jimson weed or zombie's cucumber In Japan, puffer fish is a delicacy called fugu. Served raw and prepared by a competent chef, it contains only enough tetrodotoxin to cause tingling and lightheadedness. If a chef makes a mistake while preparing the fugu, the result can be deadly. But when people eat toxic servings of fugu and recover, they are poisoning victims -- not zombies. Davis's theory is that culture and belief cause some Haitians to believe that they are zombies after recovering from the powder's effects. Some bokor also describe feeding zombies a paste that includes Datura stramonium, locally known as "zombie's cucumber." Called jimson weed in the U.S., this plant causes fever, hallucinations and amnesia, potentially strengthening a victim's belief that a real transformation has taken place.

The Zombie Controversy

He's Only Mostly DeadAccording to Davis's theories, a person poisoned with Haitian zombie powder regains consciousness either while in the coffin or shortly after being removed from it. But he explains that the bokor have a built-in safety net if the procedure doesn't work. Bokor say that divine intervention can prevent the reanimation of a zombie. They also say they can't create a zombie if the powder is too potent and kills too completely.

At first glance, Davis's research seems promising. Tetrodotoxin definitely causes paralysis and death, and researchers have documented cases in which people have recovered from near-fatal tetrodotoxin poisoning. Some of the samples Davis brought back to the United States also produced dramatic results when applied to the shaved skin of rats and a rhesus monkey. The subjects became lethargic and then immobile, but they eventually recovered completely.

Other researchers, however, have raised questions about the legitimacy of Davis's research and the actual components of the samples he brought back from Haiti. Scientists have:

• Questioned Davis's ethics, since he observed the desecration of graves when gathering ingredients for the powder
• Questioned whether the initial experiments with the powder were scientific or controlled and whether other substances had been added to the powder being tested
• Alleged that samples of powder contained little to no tetrodotoxin. Davis counters that putting the powder into solution for testing may have destroyed the active ingredients
• Revealed that Davis repeated his topical applications of the powder using rats and saw absolutely no effect
• Studied several alleged zombies and discovered clear cases of mental illness and mistaken identity

A lot of people view Davis's work as the only possible explanation for the Haitian zombie phenomenon. Others dismiss it as unscientific or even fraudulent. You can learn more about the controversies regarding Haitian zombies and Davis's research in the April 15, 1988 issue of the journal Science or the October 11, 1997 issue of The Lancet.