Commanders from the Antiquity Age

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Yes.  I am gathering research notes as I write.  However, there are still a handful of commanders that I am missing and an Eastern commander or two needs to be added.

rider: "Very impressive work..."

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Thanks.

rider: "So you researched it everything and then wrote small conclusions?"
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Yeah, not really a traditional format.  But I discovered I learn more when I stick to factual, but fragmented sentences.  With the exception, of course, of descriptive battles.  That is when I use English paragraphs.   I forgot to mention that when a battle is being written in detail the commander in BOLD is the suggestive winner of that battle.

 

I do know of one book that covers Epaminondas - Victor Davis Hanson's "Soul of Battle - From Ancient Times to the Present Day: How Three Great Liberators Vanquished Tyranny"

 

I haven't read it myself as yet (my brother gave it to me as a gift), but I have read some others of Hanson's work - specifically "The Western Way of War" and can reccomend him heartily as a classical scholar.

 

Cheers

Alexander III, [the Great] (336 B.C. � 323 B.C.)
Also known as;
Alexander the Great
Megas Alexandros
Zoroastrian [Middle Persian]
Eskandar [Persian]
Dhul-Qarnayn [Middle Eastern traditions]
al-Iskandar al-Kabeer [Arabic]
Dul-Qarnayim [Hebrew]
Tre-Qarnayia [Aramaic]
Sikandar [Urdu and Hindi]

Macedonian king
Born in Pella, capital of Macedonia.
Son of Philip II [q.v.] of Macedon and his fourth wife, Olympias, princess of Epirus.
NOTE: Olympias, according to Plutarch, claims Alexander was fathered by the god, Zeus.
Became the pupil of Aristotle when he turned 13 years old. 
At the age of 16, was regent of Macedonia when Philip II attacked Byzantium.  340 B.C.
Led an assault and subjugated the Maedi, a rebellious Thracian tribe.
NOTE: Renamed their capital, Alexandropolis.
Left Macedonia with his mother and sister to Epirus after an embarrassing incident.  339 B.C.
NOTE: At the wedding banquet of Philip II and Cleopatra, his fifth wife, Cleopatra's uncle, Attalus gave a toast that indirectly questioned the legitimacy of Alexander as heir to the throne.  Alexander assaulted Attalus.  When Philip II, attempting to stop Alexander, fell over a table in a complete state of drunkeness.  Olympias was Epirus; Celopatra was Macedonian.
Alexander came back, but his mother remained behind.

CHAERONEA August 338
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Philip II (34,000) vs.Chares of Athens, Theagenes of Thebes (30,000)
Both sides were eager for battle, but Philip II was much more experience than Chares [Athens], Lysicles [Athens] or Theagenes [Theban] combined.  Deployed at dawn, the Macedonians had Philip II commanding the right wing and 18-year-old Alexander, accompanied by the best Macedonian commanders, the left (the Companion Cavalry was positioned at the rear of the army).  The Greek army deployed their army based on nationality (Athenian soldiers holding the left wing, Theban soldier; the right with the extreme right protected by the Sacred Band).  When the battle started, it was hotly contested.  For reasons not known to the Greeks, but part of Philip's army began to withdraw from the fighting.  This inspired the Athenians that they were about to be victorious.  The Athenian side of the Greek army moved out of formation and bit the trap.  In the meantime, Alexander broke the Theban lines.  When this occurred, Philip stopped the feint retreat and vigorously attacked the Athenians.  The Athenians were routed.  Theban warriors were soon crushed thereafter. 
6,000 Athenians killed
2,000 Athenians captured
Of the 300-strong Sacred Band, 254 were killed (the rest were captured or wounded)
NOTE: He erected a memorial of a marble lion to the Sacred Band of Thebes for their bravery that still stands today.
NOTE: The ancient Roman and Greek historians, consider the battle of Chaeronea, on August 2nd, 338 BC as an end to Greek liberty and history.  Greece will not regain its freedom from foreign occupation until early 19th century AD.

Acted as the Macedonian ambassador to Athens.
Alexander's father, Philip II, is assassinated at Cleopatra's wedding, his daughter, to king Alexander of Epirus.  336 B.C.
The Macedonian army declares Alexander king of Macedonia.
NOTE: he is 20-years old.
Alexander purged all possible pretenders of the Macedonian throne.
NOTE: Lyncestis, Philip's nephew, Philip's wife, Cleopatra and her infant and Attalus.
Anxious for their independence, Athens and Thebes become restless.
Alexander swiftly marches to Thebes, whom quickly submitted.
The assembled Greeks at Isthmus of Corinth, except for the Greeks from Sparta, elect Alexander as the new commander against Persia.
Death of Philip II, inspired the Thracians to revolt.
To secure the Danube, engaged and decisively defeated the Thracians.  335 B.C.
Crossed the Danube to subjugate the Getae and Celtic tribes
The Illyrians revolts soon after.
Alexander crushes the uprising in southern Illyria in less than a week.
NOTE: With Coenus and Perdiccas, led a successful night attack against the Illyrian camp. 
Rumors spread that Alexander was killed in southern Illyria.
Thebans revolts and called upon Athens to join.
NOTE: Darius III had been instrumental in this Greek uprising.
The Illyrians are defeated.
Alexander immediately marches to Greece.
NOTE: 240 miles in 13 days (averaging over 18 miles a day in rough terrain).
Orders Perdiccas to attack the gates of Thebans.
Theban is erased off the surface of the Earth with great bloodshed.
NOTE: City of Thebans is razed.  Its territory is divided among other Boeotian cities.  The citizens were sold into slavery [Priests and leaders of the pro-Macedonian party, and Pindar's decendants were spared].  Only Pindar's house remained untouched.
6,000 men Thracians killed
30,000 inhabitants were sold into slavery.
Athens quickly submitted.
NOTE: All the anti-Macedonian party members were exiled (like Demosthenes).
Crossed the Hellespont from Sestos to Abydos with an army of 40,000 troops.  334 B.C.
Realizing the strength of the Persian fleet, his first priority was to secure to coast of the Aegean Sea.
Left Antipather with 10,000 men in Greece.

GRANICUS RIVER May, 334 B.C.
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Alexander (35,000) vs. Persian satraps Spithridates/Mithridates (38,000)
After crossing the Hellespont, the Macedonian army marched on the road to Dascylium, the capital of Satrapy of Phrygia.  The Persian army under Spirthridates and Mithridates wait for the Macedonians on the banks of the Granicus River.  The Macedonian scouts spotted the Persian army.  Memnon of Rhodes, captain of the 8,000 Greek mercenaries who left Greece to fight for the Persians, suggested a scorched-earth policy.  This suggestion is rejected by the satraps.  The Persians, according to Arrian, the Greek historian, placed their cavalry in front of their infantry and drew up on the east bank of the river.  The Macedonians had their heavy Phalanxes in the middle and cavalry protecting their flanks.  The uneveness of the eastern bank held by the Persians caused many of the Macedonians great concern.  It is not known if Alexander attacked immediately, or if he had crossed the river upstream and attacked at dawn (as suggested by Alexander's second-in-command, Parmenion).  Alexander ordered Nicanor's cavalry and one battalion of hypaspists to feint attack the Persian left flank.  The Persians reinforced their flank and the Macedonians feinted.  With the feint objective met, Alexander and the Companion cavalry formed a wedge and charged into the weakened Persian center line.  The Macedonian assault was so swift, perhaps because of the effective use of the river's current, and forceful that it pushed the Persians from the shore, alienating the calvary from the slow approaching phalanx.  This allowed the Persians to countercharge.  During this charge, many noteable Persian nobles were killed.  Alexander was also stunned by an axe-blow but was saved by a man named Clitus the Black.  The Macedonian cavalry, controlling the center of the battlefield, turned left and rolled up the Persian cavalry which had been engaged with the Macedonian left in a general engagement.  A gaping hole in the center of the battlefield allowed the Macedonian phalanx to rush towards the Persian infantry in the rear.  The Persian flanks broke and the infantry was routed.  Many of the infantry were killed during the chase.  The Greek mercenaries, sitting on top of the hill never engaging the Macedonians, were surrounded.  Refusing to accept their surrender, Alexander defeats the Greek 'traitors'.
4,000 Persians killed (the majority killed during the rout)
2,000 Persians captured
Spithridates was killed.
  115 Macedonians killed.
NOTE: Of the estimated 8,000 Greeks that fought for the Persians, 2,000 were captured and sent to Macedonian mines.  Two years later, when asked for their release from citizens from various Greek city-states, including Athens, he freed them.
NOTE: Memnon did not participate in this battle.

After a brief siege, captured Miletus.
Accepts the surrender of Sardis, the Persian provincial capital.
NOTE: Treasury was taken.
Marches down to the Ionian coast.
Memnon, given direct military control by Darius, retreated to Halikarnassos and fortified it.
Victorious at the siege of Halicarnassus.
NOTE: This forced Memnon and Orontobates, the Persian satrap of Caria, to escape by sea.  Memnon establishes other seaports in the attempt to initiate an naval attack on Greece.  However, he dies due to disease before he was able to finish.  His successor did not pursue his goal.
Gave rulership of Caria to Ada, who was the previous ruler of Caria before being deposed.
Marched into Lycia then to Pamphylia, thus controlling the coastal cities.  333 B.C.
Moved inland after no major ports were located along the coast.
At Gordium, the capital of Phrygia, Alexander 'undid' the tangled knot, a feat only that for the future 'king of Asia'.
NOTE: Some stories say he actually untied it, others say he simply hacked it apart with his sword.
Arsames, the Persian Satrap stripped the surrounding territory and retired, leaving a small garrison at the Cilician Gate.
The important Cilician Gate was taken with out a fight after the garrison fled.
Subdued the surrounding highlands.
After a bath, became seriously sick for several weeks.
Hearing rumors of Darius massing a large army in Babylon, sends Parmenion to occupy the coast around Issus.
Reports arrived indicating, correctly, that the Persian army had advanced on a town called Sochi in Syria.
Alexander and Darius waited for each other, the Macedonian king wanted to fight the Persian army close to the Assyrian Gate, the Persian king; in the open plains of Sochi.
Darius became impatient and marched north around the mountains, crossing the Amanian Gate in good time.
NOTE: Events outside the campaign leading up to Issus consisted of the Persian fleet re-taking islands and city-ports.  However, when the final call for Greek mercenaries to join Darius' army, the success of the naval campaign dwindled.  Alexander received news that the naval assault at Halicarnassus by Orontobates was thwarted by the smaller Macedonian navy.
With the good news, Alexander consolidated his forces at Issus and moved south through the Pillar of Yunus.
Bad weather dampened spirits in the Macedonian army.
Alexander lost Darius; Parmenion convinced Alexander to remain where he is and not advance into the Assyrian plains.
The Persians capture the empty camp near Issus, killing the sick and wounded left behind by Alexander.
Hearing word of Darius behind him, Alexander moves towards Issus.
Darius, either chasing Alexander or thinking the Macedonian army retreated, moves south when his scouts locate the Macedonian army, which had already passed the Pillar of Yunus.
Darius moves from Issus and both armies find each other at the Pinarus river.

ISSUS 333 B.C.
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Alexander (40,000) vs. Darius III (91,000)
Darrius III, with such a large force (20,000 Greek mercenaries, 60,000 Persian infantry, 11,000 Persian cavalry) and unable to supply it properly, was forced instigate the conflict.  However, the Macedonian supply line is cut as well.  Darius III positioned his army along the Pinarus river as Alexander approached.  The Macedonian right flank was held by Alexander's Companion Cavalry and his Thessalian allied cavalry on the left with Parmenion in command of the phalanx.  The Persian heavy cavalry is concentrated on the coast, their right flank, more Greek mercenaries.  The Cardaces, Persian infantry, are spread along the river and foothills, wrapping around the other bank to expose Alexander's flank.  Darius is located in the middle, with his best troops, the Greek mercenaries and his royal cavalry guard.  Darius later sent parts of his cavalry along the possible exposed flank.  Alexander reacts by two small detachments (Agrians and light cavalry) to protect the right flank and a greater number of cavalry to protect the left wing, which was positioned against the heavy Persian cavalry.  The Persian cavalry cross the river and attack the Thessalian cavalry and Parmenion's horsemen.  By late afternoon, Alexander, leading the Hypaspists on foot, charge against across the river and quickly overrun the surprisingly disorganized Cardaces' units.  The Persian attack managed to push the cavalry back and penetrate the phalanx from the side.  The Greek mercenaries put up stiff resistance against the Macedonians' central phalanx' attack.  With the situation deteriotating on the Macedonian's left flank, the Greek mercenaries started to push the Macedonians back across the river.  Despite what appeared to be the advantage, the Persian left wing collapsed and was turned.  The Macedonians did not pursue, they turned on the flank of the Greek mercenaries.  Mounting a horse, Alexander leads his Companion Cavalry against Darius.  Viewing the situation, Darius immediately flees.  With the king running off the field, the Persians abandon all efforts and are routed.  Macedonian cavalry mercilessly pursue the Persians until night approaches.  Despite the rout, the Greeks mercenaries retired in good order.  Darius managed to escape.
NOTE: In view of it all, Alexander used a sophisticated version of the oblique formation.  Permenion was in charge of holding the Perisans right flank, while Alexander moved against the Persian left flank and, then, center.  Darius fled to Euphrates, leaving his family behind (wife, children, and mother) and much of his kingdom's treasure. 
NOTE: Sisygambis, Darius' mother, disowned him and adopted Alexander.
NOTE: First defeat Darius III experienced.
10,000 Persians are killed on the battlefield.
Much more are killed during the rout.
   450 Macedonians killed (Alexander was wounded).

Marched south into Syria and Phoenicia.
Marathus and Aradus sided with Alexander with no resistance.
NOTE: About the time the siege of Tyre was taking place, the Persians marched into Asia Minor, but was defeated by Antigonus, the new satrap of Greater Phrygia.
Captured Byblos and Sidon.
Tyre resisted.

SIEGE of TYRE  332 B.C.
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Alexander (23,000) vs. unknown (numbers not found)
Built on an island a half mile off shore. the fortified city of Tyre poised as a threat to Alexander's plan of eliminating all Persian ports, thus ending a Persian invasion into Greece.  Built a mole across the channel, but parts of it was destroyed by the Phoenician galleys.  Consolidated his recent conquered assets (Sidon, Byblod, and Aradas) and with his other new allies (Rhodes and Cyprus) used their fleet to check the Tyrian galleys.  Once the mole was completed, they immediately began to attempt to breach the Tyre defenses, which took considerable time.  Alexander, leading the final storm of Tyre, successfully captured Tyre.
 8,000 Tyrians killed.
30,000 Tyrians sold into slavery.
NOTE: What took king Nebuchadnezzar II 13 years to fail to do, Alexander did in 7 months.
NOTE: Darius III opened negotiations with Alexander, which was quickly turned down.

SIEGE of GAZA  332 B.C.
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Alexander (numbers not found) vs. Batis (numbers not found)
While the siege was taking place, Alexander moved further along the coast and accepted more cities.  Gaza, under Batis, refused to surrender.  The heavily-fortified fort protecting Gaza laid on a hill.  After Tyre, Alexander build ramps on the side of the hill.  Gaza maintained it resistance for two months before it was finally taken.  All the men were killed and the women and children were sold into slavery.  Alexander was injured during the siege.
NOTE: Immitating Achilles, Alexander dragged the body of Batis behind a chariot around the walls of Gaza.

Welcomed as a liberator in Egypt.
NOTE: Pilgrimage to the great temple and oracle of Amon-Ra.  Alexander was recognized as the son of Zeus Ammon.
Founded Alexandria in Egypt.
NOTE: Which becomes the capital during the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Leaving the Mediterranean coast, marched into Assyria.  331 B.C.
Returned to Phoenicia, nominated a Macedonian satrap for Syria.
Arrived at Thapsacus, on the river Euphrates.
Advanced across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigres.
Mazaeus, assigned to the new Persian army by Darius, marched up the Tigris to oppose him.

GAUGAMELA October 1, 331 B.C.
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Alexander (47,000) vs. Darius III (110,000)
While Alexander was conquering the Mediterranean coast, Darius built a huge, but mostly inexperienced, army.  When the Macedonian army arrived at the site of battle chosen by Darius, Alexander immediately set up camp.  That night, Darius believed Alexander would attack, Darius had most of his men stay up the night in anticipation of the attack.  Darius ordered the field to be smoothed out and cleared to enhance the performance of the 200 chariots (there were also 15 war elephants on play, however, they did not appear to be a factor in the battle).  In the middle of the Persian army position was the elite infantry.  On the right flank was the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards.  Left flank was covered with mostly cavalry, under command of Bessus, from various regions and Mardian archers.  Darius positioned himself with his infantry.  Between the right flank and infantry, the Persian foot guards (Called the Immortals by the Greeks), Indian cavalry and Mardian archers stood guard.  With yet more troops to place on the field, in front of the main army were Bactrian chariots.  More varied cavalry were dispersed along the right flank, front, and left flank of the main army.  This group of cavalry, althought widely spread out, was under the command of a single cavalry commander, Mazaeus.  Macedonians, dispersed into two specific groups.  Alexander rode with the Companion cavalry, Paionian, and the Macedonian light cavalry.  The veteran mercenary cavalry was located on the right flank as well.  The left flank, under command of Parmenion, consisted of Thessalian, Greek mercenary, and Thracian cavalry.  The Agrians and Macedonian archers were stationed next to the phalanx, which was in a double-line formation.  Alexander wanted Parmenion to hold the line while he struck at the heart of the Persian army.
Combat was initiated by Darius, hurling his chariots at the Macedonian army.  The chariots were easily stopped by the Agrianians, moved aside and persuading the horses to enter into a type of 'mousetrap'.  Once the chariots were halted, the charioteers were killed.  The Macedonian rearguard started to cover the Macedonian flanks as the Persians continued to curl up the Macedonian line.  With the lines covered by the rearguard, Darius sent in more troops to circumvent the flank.  This action caused a gap between Bessus's left and Darius' center.  Alexander sent his last available cavalry reserves to protect the flanks.  Alexander disengaged his Companions.  Formed a cavalry wedge and charged into the main Persian line.  The cavalry wedge crashed into the weakened Persian center, dismantling the royal elite troops and Greek mercenaries.  Bessus, instead of supporting the defense of the king, pulled away from the attack.  Darius, in fear of his life, broke.  Receiving desperate messages from Parmenion, Alexander ended all thoughts of chasing Darius and aided the left flank, which had been violently pushed further to the left.  This caused a huge gap between the Parmenion and the phalanx.  The Persian and Indian cavalry units pored into that gap, however, instead of attacking the vulnerable flank and rear of the Phalanx or Parmenion, the went into the Macedonian camp and started looting it.  NOTE: They attempted to rescue the Queen Mother Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them.  The last available Macedonian reserves drove off the camp invaders, but received heavy casualties.  In the meantime, Mazaeus attempted to disengage his force, however the disengagement turned into a chaotic rout as the Thessalian cavalry continued to pursue.  Alexander pursued, but failed to capture, Darius, who fled to Ecbatana.  Parmenion looted the Persian baggage train.
4,000 talents captured
King's personal chariot and bow.
NOTE: Darius maintained a small force as well as the Bessus' Bactrian cavalry, remnants of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries.  Darius planned to head East to raise another army and dispatched letters calling all Eastern satrapies to remain loyal.
Casualties are too exaggerated to list.  Safe to say high casualties among the Persians; less so for the Macedonians.

Alexander remained in the vicinity until the provinces to the south were secured.
Marched to Babylon, following the Tigris.
Marched on one of the Achaemenid capitals, Susa.
By way of the Royal Road, moved on to Persopolis, another Persian capital.
NOTE: Both capitals yielded large amounts of treasure.
NOTE: A fire broke out in Persepolis, no evidence revealed if this was revenge for the burning of Athens centuries ago.
Darius was kidnapped and murdered by Bessus and his followers.  Bessus declared himself 'Artaxerxes V' and retreated into Central Asia to start a guerrilla campaign against Alexander.
Alexander releases his Greek allies from service.
NOTE: The reason for this was because of a major uprising that had occurred in Greece.
Crossed the Zagros Mountains into Media.  330 B.C.
Alexander continued to pursue Artaxerxes V, whom was betrayed by his own men.  329 B.C.
The satrap of Sogdiana was Alexander's next objective.
Then Spitamemes became his next target, who also was betrayed.  328 B.C.
NOTE: This three-year campaign took him through Media, Parthia, Aria, Drangiana, Arachosia, Bactria, and Scythia.
Captured and refounded Herat and Maracanda.
Founded a series of new cities, all named Alexandria.
Began to accept other customs into his own, which was strongly disapproved by his fellow Greeks.
A plot against his life failed and the events afterward includes a purging of fellow Greeks.
NOTE: Philotas, a Greek officer, was killed because he failed to put light on the plot.  Parmenion, Philotas's father, and head of the army at Ecbatana, was executed per request of Alexander for fear of a retaliation for the death sentence of his son.  Other minor Greeks and Macedonians were put on trial and executed.
NOTE: A drunken brawl at Maracanda ended with the death of Alexander's old friend, Clitus the Black.  The man who saved his life at Granicus.
A second assassination plot was revealed, Callisthenes of Olynthus, Alexander's historian and his pages were accused with the plot (fate of Callisthenes is unknown).
Alexander marries Roxana (Roshanak) and solidifies his relationship with the new Central Asian satrapies.  326 B.C.
Alexander invited former satrapies of Gandhara to submit to him.
Ambhi, ruler of Taxila, submits.
Ashvayanas [Aspasios] and Ashvakayanas [Assakenois] refused.
After fierce battles, the Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas were subdued.
With a smaller force, Alexander took a northern route and captured the Aornos fortress.
Gave Sisikottos governorship of Aornos.
Crossed the Indus

HYDASPES May 326
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Alexander III (54,000) vs. Porus (22,000)
With his new ally, raja Ambhi of Taxila, Alexander arrived on the banks of the Hydaspes river.  Porus wanted to hold Alexander on the wide banks of the Hydaspes river, which had melted waters from the Himalayas.  The Macedonians marched and countermarched up and down the river for several days.  Coenus, a Macedonian officer, had brought boats that were used to cross the Indus river.  During the night and in the mists of a storm, Alexander and a small contingent of his army moved away from the river and through a valley.  NOTE: Craterus was given command at the main base.  At dawn and upstream from their main base, the Macedonians crossed the river.  Porus was unaware that Alexander had crossed the river seventeen miles upstream.  Suddenly alerted but thinking the force that the force that did cross was insignificant, Porus sent a small cavalry under his son to investiage.  The Indian force was easily repulsed and Porus' son was killed.  Hearing the news of the defeat, Porus left a detachment at the banks opposing Craterus, and moved against Alexander.  Porus, finding a fitting spot for battle, placed his 200 war elephants in front of his infantry and had chariots and cavalry protecting their flanks and waited for the Macedonians.  Alexander arrived and deployed his phalanx.  The Companion Cavalry and Dahae (mounted archers), with the exception of two units which were hidden behind the infantry on the left flank, which were both under Alexander's direct command, were placed on the right wing.  A small Macedonian cavalry detachment flanked further right, protecting the river's edge and threatening Porus' left flank.  Throughout this time, the Macedonian infantry had been slowly creepy up on the Indian army.  Porus, seeing the Macedonian cavalry few in number, which actually wasn't the case, ordered his cavalry on his right wing to move to the left wing, then sent the whole cavalry force to oppose the Macedonian cavalry.  During the attack, Alexander called upon the cavalry detachment that was locationed on the extreme right flank to attack the rear of the cavalry.  The Macedonian cavalry hiding behind the infantry, charged and attacked the right flank of the cavalry.  Porus' main infantry army was ordered to move against the Macedonian phalanx.  The bowmen and javelin throwers attempted to strike at the elephants, but overall, proved futile.  The war elephants crashed into the phalanx, penetrating with relatively ease.  Just as the infantry battle was beginning, the Indian cavalry had had enough.  The Indian cavalry was routed.  The Macedonian turned on the exposed left flank of the Indian infantry formation and its rear.  Though the Macedonian phalanx had been broken, the Indian infantry could not capitalize on the situation due to the immediate danger of the cavalry attack.    Some time later (hours later?), Craterus had crossed the river and assisted in the fighting. 
Casualites on both sides were high (Macedonian cavalry casualties were light).
King Porus was wounded and captured.
Over 100 war elephants killed
80 war elephants captured.

Reappointed Porus as governor of the conquered territory.
Founded Nicaea and Bucephala (named after his dead horse).
Fearing the prospects of facing the powerful Magadha in India and after 9 years of continuous campaigning, the army mutinied.
After a meeting with Coenus, Alexander called for the end of the campaign and to return to Babylon.
Forced to turn south
Conquering his way down the Indus to the Indian Ocean.
Sent a large portion of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus.
Led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosia (present day Makran in southern Pakistan).
NOTE: This journey, Alexander's army lost three-quarters of his army due to the effects of the desert and supply shortages.
Became busy with the organization and administration of his empire.
Some of his provincial officals ruled unjustly and were replaced.
Another small mutiny occurred in the town of Opis, but it was a misunderstanding and the ringleaders were executed.
Alexander became ill and bedridden.
12 days later, Alexander died of either malaria, typhoid fever, or viral encephalitis at the palace of Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon.
His only son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander�s death.
NOTE: Later killed.

FINAL NOTE:
After Alexander's death, the Greeks rebelled again called the Lamian War. Though briefly successful, they were later crushed and remained under Macedonian rule for the next 150 years.  The empire was divided among his officers.  Perdiccas and meleager were murdered.  Antigonus quick grown in Asia Minor brought about a defeated at Ipsus against multiple kingdoms.  Cassander, Antigonus' son, ruling Macedon, Lysimachus at Thrace, Seleucus in Mesopotamia and Iran, Ptolemy in Egypt.  Seleucus lost the Indian territory to Chandragupta Maurya.  By 270 B.C., three main parts of the empire remained; Antigonid Empire in Macedon, Seleucid Empire in Asia, and the Ptolemaic kingdom in Egypt and Palestine.  By 100 B.C., most of the west was absorbed by the Roman Republic; the Macedonia in 167 B.C. and Greece in 145 B.C. Seleucid Asia in 65 B.C. and Cleopatra VII, the last descendent of Ptolemy, committed suicide in 30 B.C.


Philip II telling Alexander in an old tale. [tale name unknown]
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�My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions.  Macedonia is too small for you.�
 
Alexander�s basic tenet.  (unsure of exact quote.)
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�If you go along with my rule you will be rewarded with your lives, my protection and my taxes.  If you go against me I will conquer you.  If you betray me you will be utterly destroyed."

Written on 300 bucklers sent to Athens after the battle of Granicus River
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"Alexander the son of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Lacedaemonians [Spartans], won these from the barbarians who inhabit Asia."

Arrian@allempires.com of Granicus    06/27/05
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"I believe the very nature of how the battle played out sent significant signals  to combatants on both sides.   Alexander faced a river crossing followed by a scramble up the river's bank to meet a numerically superior enemy who waited at their leisure.   The Macedonians exerted themselves greatly before they were even able to join the battle.    Once the battle began in earnest Alexander continued to press the issue in spite of his perceived disadvantages.  His daring  cavalry charge directly at Darius' position, at great personal risk, served to panic his opponent and to  embolden his own troops.
"Although not as aesthetically appealing as Gaugamela or as creative as the siege of Tyre, Granicus left no doubt that Alexander was going to be a force to be reckoned with.   His reckless, hellbent attack and win at Granicus left the Persians reeling and I believe did them irreparable psychological damage."

Diodorus Siculus
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"In this year Darius sent money to Memnon and appointed him general of the whole war. He gathered a force of mercenaries, manned three hundred ships, and pursued the conflict vigorously... As word came to Greece that Memnon was about to sail to Euboea with his fleet, the cities of that island became alarmed, while those Greeks friendly to Persia, notably Sparta, began to have high hopes in a change in the political situation.  Memnon distributed bribes freely and won many Greek over to share in Persian hopes, but Fortune nevertheless put an end to is career. He fell ill and died of a desperate malady, and with his death Darius' fortunes also collapsed."


Alexander, after viewing Darius� tent filled with treasure at Issus.
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�So this is what is means to be a king.�


Alexander, after Sisygambis prostrated herself at the feet of the taller Hephaestion.
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�Don�t worry mother, he is Alexander too.�

Spartan@allempires.com of Gaugamela   02/23/05
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"If Alexander had been stopped at Gaugamela, Hellenism may not have had the far reaching effects it did."


Victor Hanson writes of the Ashvayan campaign
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"After promising the surrounded Assacenis their lives upon capitulation, he executed all their soldiers who had surrendered. Their strongholds at Ora and Aornus were also similarly stormed. Garrisons were probably all slaughtered�

Alexander wrote about the Ashvayan and Ashvakayan people to his mother
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"I am involved in the land of a leonine and brave people, where every foot of the ground is like a well of steel, confronting my soldier. You have brought only one son into the world, but everyone in this land can be called an Alexander�

JeffF.@history.net 12/06/02
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�Alexander�s key ability was his battlefield sense of the decisive moment.  His well-timed Companion Cavalry charges were the key to most of his victories (the phalanx, while important, was not decisive).  Other great leaders may have had a similar ability, but many of them were without the means of acting�  Alexander faced numerous types of enemies because of the diversity of the people of the Persian empire and those on the peripheries (Scythians and Indians).  He fought in desert, mountains, plains, sieges (he fought and won in more varied terrain than anyone) and defeated his opponents.  He defeated the Scythians (a tremendous achievement)�  Alexander won a mountain campaign (Bactrians) another great achievement that distinguished him from Napoleon or Caesar (no the Twelfth Legion campaign against the Alpine tribe during the Gallic War was not commanded by Caesar).  A little known fact was that he was a superb logistician (something that puts him well above Napoleon and Caesar).�

     
SOURCES:
http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t05.html
http://www.allempires.com/articles/granicos/granikos.htm
http://monolith.dnsalias.org/~marsares/warfare/battle/granicus.html
Maps provided by the Department of History, United States Military Academy.
http://www.allempires.com/articles/issos/issos.htm
http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/617550
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus

MAPS PROVIDED:
www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=granikos