December 27th: Greater Poland Uprising

I hope today's topic is more of the like of Mosquito: today in 1918, the still occupied Poland started their national uprising, after pianist and politician Ignacy Paderewski spoke to the public in Poznan.

I. Paderewski

While the 14 points of Wilson demanded respect for self-determination of nations, Germany still occupied all the former western territories of Russia (Baltic nations, Poland, Belarus and Ukraine), to which the Soviets had renounced any claim by the 1917 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Though Germany had signed an armistice and the Kaiser had abdicated, many Germans still aimed to annex at least the part of Poland that was Prussian before the Napoleonic period, placing maybe dependent regimes in the rest of the occupied territories of the East. Parts of Eastern Germany, particularly Greater Poland (or province of Poznan), were also majoritarily Polish ethnically.

In any case, the Greater Polish Uprising that started today, some 87 years ago, put an end to these German aspirations. After Paderewski's adress, many Poles, mostly members of the Polish Military Organization, became armed and started hostilities against Germany.

The timing couldn't be better, as Germany was then involved in civil conflict due to the (failed) Socialist Revolution of 1918-19.

As the uprising succeeded, the High People's Council, initially reluctant to support the revolt, started to show simpathy to it. By January 9th, it had already recognized oficially the uprising as legitmate. By January 15th the succesful Polish militants controlled most of Poznan province, engaging openly in full military war with the demoralized German forces.

Allied intervention was also important: France forced Germany to acknowledge Polish forces as allied troops in February, what made the war pretty short. By March 8th 1919 the war was over and the future borders of Poland became subject to the Treaty of Versailles.


Second Polish Republic (1919-1939)

Other events that happened today:

• 537 - Hagia Sofia (now Aya Sofia) church was completed

Aya Sofia

• 1831 - Charles Darwin starts his legendary voyage aboard the HMS Beagle

Charles Darwin

• 1945 - The World Bank is created. The same day Korea is divded in Soviet and US occupation areas
  
• 1949 - Indonesia National Revolution succeeds: Queen Juliana of the Netherlands signs the acknowledgemen of Indonesian independence
• 1978 - Spain formally becomes a democracy, after four decades of fascist dictatorship, when the current constitution is promulgated
  
• 1979 - The USSR akes control of Afghanistan, with Babal Kermal as new President
  
• 1985 - Naturalist Dian Fossey, who pioneered the protecion of mountain gorillas, is found murdered in Rwanda

Dian Fossey

Full list: Wikipedia.




Edited by Maju

864: Birth of Abobakr Mohammad ibn Zakariai Razi
The Discover of Sulfuric Acid & Ethanol (Alcohol)


Al-Razi, (full name Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi) (ابو بکر الرازی), also known as "Zakaria al-Razi" in Arabic; or in Latin as Rhazes and Rasis. According to al-Biruni born in Rayy, Iran in the year 251AH/865AD and died in Rayy, Iran 313AH/925AD.

He was a versatile Persian philosopher who made fundamental and lasting contributions to the fields of medicine, chemistry, alchemy, and philosophy.

Razi realized no organized system of philosophy, but taking in account the time he lived in, he must be reckoned as one of the most vigorous and liberal thinkers in Islam and perhaps in the history of human thought. He was a pure rationalist, extremely confident of the power of reason, free from any kind of prejudice, and very bold and daring in expressing his ideas without a qualm. He believed in man, progress and in "God the Wise".

He is credited with the discovery of sulfuric acid, the "work horse" of modern chemistry, and chemical engineering among other things; he also discovered ethanol and its refinement and use in medicine.

Razi was a prolific writer: he wrote 184 books and articles in various fields of science. According to historian Ibn an-Nadim, Razi distinguished himself as the best physician of his time who had fully mastered Greek medical knowledge. He traveled in many lands and rendered service to several princes and rulers especially to Baghdad where he had his lab. As a teacher in Medicine he attracted a great amount of students of all diciplines and was said to be compassionate, kind, upright, and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor.

The modern-day Razi Institute near Tehran, Iran was named after him, and 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every August 27.

Biography

In Persian and Arabic, Razi means "from the city of Rayy (also spelled RAY, REY, or RAI, old Persian RAGHA, Latin RHAGAE) formerly one of the great cities of World)", an ancient town on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the Caspian Sea, situated near Tehran, Iran. In this city (like Avicenna) he accomplished most of his work.

In his early life he could have been a jeweller (Baihaqi), a money-changer (Cf. ibn abi Usaibi'ah) but more likely a lute-player who changed his interest in music to alchemy( Cf. ibn Juljul, Sa'id, ibn Khallikan, Usaibi'ah, al-Safadi). At the age of thirty (Safadi says after forty) he stopped his study of alchemy because its experiments caused an eye-disease (Cf. al-Biruni), obliging him to search for physicians and medicine to cure it. al-Birflni, Baihaqi and others, say this was the reason why he began his medical studies. He was very studious working night and day. His teacher was 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (Cf. al-Qifti, Usaibi'ah), a physician and philosopher born in Merv about 192/808 (d. approx. 240/855). Al-Razi studied medicine and probably also philosophy with ibn Rabban al-Tabari. Therefore his interest in spiritual philosophy can be traced to this master, whose father was a Rabbinist versed in the Scriptures. According to Prof.Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Professor of Chemistry at the Faculty of Science, University of Cairo (Cf. the Alchemy Website): " (...) Al-Razi took up the study of medicine after his first visit to Baghdad, when he was at least 30 years old, under the well-known physician Ali ibn Sahl (a Jewish convert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania. He showed such a skill in the subject that he quickly surpassed his master, and wrote no fewer than a hundred medical books. He also composed 33 treatises on natural science (not including alchemy),mathematics and astronomy (...)."

Al-Razi became famous in his native city as a physician. He became Director of the hospital of Rayy (Cf. ibn Juljul, al-Qifti, ibn abi Usaibi'ah), during the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad who was Governor of Rayy from 290-296/902-908 on behalf of his cousin Ahmad ibn Isma'il ibn Ahmad, second Samanian ruler. Razi dedicated his al-Tibb al-'Mansurito Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad , which was verified in a handwritten manuscript of hisbook. This was refuted by ibn al-Nadim', but al-Qifti and ibn abi Usaibi'ah confirmed that the named Mansur was indeed Mansur ibn Isma'il who died in 365/975. al-Razi moved from Rayy to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign (approx.289/901-295/907) where he again held a position as Chief Director of a hospital.

After al-Muktafi's death (295/907) al-Razi allegedly returned to Rayy where he gathered many students around him. As ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist, al-Razi was then a [[Shaikh]] (title given to one entitled to teach) "with a big head similar to a sack", surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the 'first circle'. if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second crcle'... and so on and on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, it came to al-Razi himself. We know of at least one of these students who became a physician. Al-Razi was a very generous man, with a humane behavior towards his patients, and acting charitable to the poor, He used to give them full treatment without charging any fee, nor demanding any other payment. When he was not occupied with pupils or patients he was always writing and studying. This fact might have been the cause for the gradual weakening of his sight which finally resulted in becoming blind in both eyes. Some say the cause of his blindness was that he used to eat too many broad beans (baqilah). His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The rumor goes that he refused to be treated for cataract, declaring that he "had seen so much of the world that he was tired of it." However, this seems to be an anecdote more than a historical fact. One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated proclaiming it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rayy, on the 5th of Sha'ban 313/27th of October 925.

Al-Razi's Masters and Opponents

We already mentioned that Razi studied medicine under 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, however, Ibn al-Nadim indicates that he studied philosophy under al-Balkhi, who had travelled much and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and ancient sciences. Some even say that al-Razi attributed some of al-Balkhi's books on philosophy to himself. We know nothing about this man called al-Balkhi, not even his full name.

Razi's opponents, on the contrary, are well-known. They are the following:

1. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief of the Mu'tazilah of Baghdad (d. 319/931), a contemporary of al-Razi who wrote many refutations about al-Razi's books, especially in his Ilm al-Ilahi. His disagreements with al-Razi entailed his thoughts on the concept of 'Time'.

2. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi, with whom al-Razi had many controversies; one of these was on the concept of 'Pleasure', expounded in his Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work Siwan al-Hikmah. Al-Balkhi died prior to 329/940.

3. Abu Hatim al-Razi became the most important of all his opponents (d. 322/933-934) and was one of the greatest Isma'ili missionaries. He published his controversies with al-Razi in his book A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Because of this book, al-Razi's thoughts on Prophets and Religion are preserved for us.

4. Ibn al-Tammar (seemingly being abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar, says Kraus) was a physician and he too had some disputes with al-Razi, which is documented by abu Hatim al-Razi in A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Ibn al-Tammar disagreed with al-Razi's book al-Tibb al-Ruhani but al-Razi counteracted this. In fact, al-Razi wrote two antitheses:

(a) First refutation of al-Tammar's disagreement with Misma'i concerning 'Matter'.

(b) Second refutation of al-Tammar's opinion of 'the Atmosphere of subterranean habitations'.

5.Following are authors as described by al-Razi in his writings:

(a) al-Misma'i, a Mutakallim, who opposed 'materialists', counteracted byan al-Razi's treatise.

(b) Jarir, a physician who had a theory about 'The eating of black mulberries after consuming water-melon'.

(c) al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi, to whom al-Razi wrote two epistles with commentaries.

(d) al-Kayyal, a Mutakallim: al-Razi wrote a book on about his Theory of the Imam.

(e) Mansur ibn Talhah, being the author of the book "Being", which was critized by al-Razi.

(f) Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa'ili whose opposition against alchemists was disputed by al-Razi.

6. Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi (d. 286/899), was an older contemporary of al-Razi. Al-Razi disagreed with him on the question of 'bitter taste'. He moreover opposed his teacher Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, regarding his writings,in which he discredited alchemists.

• • We could add more names to this list of all people opposed by al-Razi, specifically the Mu'tazilah and different Mutakallimin.

Contributions to medicine

Smallpox vs. measles

As chief physician of the Baghdad hospital Razi formulated the first known description of smallpox:

"Smallpox appears when blood 'boils' and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as 'bubbles found in wine' -(as blisters)- ... this disease can also occur at other times -(meaning: not only during childhood)-. The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic."

This diagnosis is acknowledged by the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Arabian (=Persian) physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment.".

Razi's book: al-Judari wa al-Hasbah was the first book describing smallpox, and was translated more than a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation shows Razi's medical methods. We quote:

"The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breath and cough. Additional symtomps are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with 'measles' than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums."

Razi was the first physician to diagnose smallpox and measles and the first one to distinguish the difference between them.

Allergies and fever

Razi is also known for having discovered 'allergic asthma', and was the first physician ever to write articles on allergy and immunology. In the Sense of Smelling he explains the occurrence of 'rhinitis' after smelling a rose during the Spring: Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring. In this article he dicusses seasonal 'rhinitis', which is the same as allergic asthma or hay fever. Razi was the first to realize that fever is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease.

Pharmacy

Rhazes contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of ' mercurial ointments' and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.

Ethics of medicine

On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and 'cures'. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.

Books and articles on medicine

• The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi).

This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes � known in Europe also as The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber � contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages.

The al-Hawi is not a formal medical encyclopaedia, but a posthumous compilation of Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.

• A medical advisor for the general public (Man la Yahduruhu Tab)

Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home Medical Manual (remedial) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book, of course, is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century.Razi described in its 36 chapters,diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results.

Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example,he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of duhn (oily extract) of rose, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a laxative, " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice (opium), clover fodder (Curcuma epithymum) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh, saffron, and frankincense, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops.

• Doubts About Galen (Shukuk 'ala alinusor)

Rhazes's independent mind is strikingly revealed in this book and G. Stolyarov II quotes:

"In the manner of numerous Greek thinkers, including Socrates and Aristotle, Rhazes rejected the mind-body dichotomy and pioneered the concept of mental health and self-esteem as being essential to a patient's welfare. This "sound mind, healthy body" connection prompted him to frequently communicate with his patients on a friendly level, encouraging them to heed his advice as a path to their recovery and bolstering their fortitude and determination to resist the illness and resulting in a speedy convalescence."

In his book Doubts about Galen, Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy,and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's.

He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularry that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (Cf. I. E. Goodman)

This line of criticism essentially had the potentiality to destroy completely Galen's Theory of Humours including Aristotele's theory of the Four Elements, on which it was grounded. Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements.

Razi's challenge to the current fundaments of medical theory were quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his commendable contributions and labors. saying:

"I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published."

Then, Razi aiming to vindicate Galen's greatness and justifing his own criticism, lists four reasons why great men make more errors than lesser ones, due to:

1. Negligence, as a result of too much self-confidence.
2. Being unmindful (indifference) which often leads to errors.
3. Temptation to follow up on one's own thoughts or impetuosity, being convinced of that what one says or does is correct.
4. Crystallization of ancient knowledge, and the refusal to accept the fact that new data and ideas indicate that present day knowledge ultimately might surpass that of previous generations.

Razi believed that contemporary scientists and scholars are by far better equipped, more knowledgeable, and more competent than the ancient ones, due to the accumulated knowledge at their disposal. Razi's attempt to overthrow blind acceptance of the unchallenged authority of ancient Sages, encouraged and stimulated research and advances in the arts, technology, and sciences.

Books on medicine

This is a partial list of Razi's books and articles in medicine, according to Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah. Some books may have been copied or printed under different names.

• al-Hawi, al-Hawi al-Kabir. Also known as The Virtuous Life, Continens Liber. The large medical Encyclopedia containing mostly recipes and Razi's notebooks.
• Isbateh Elmeh Pezeshki, An Introduction to Medical Science.
• Dar Amadi bar Elmeh Pezeshki
• Rade Manaategha 'tibb jahez
• Rade Naghzotibbeh Nashi
• The Experimentation of Medical Science and its Application
• Guidance
• Kenash
• The Classification of Diseases
• Royal Medicine
• For One Without a Doctor
• The Book of Simple Medicine
• The Great Book of Krabadin
• The Little Book of Krabadin
• The Book of Taj or The Book of the Crown
• The Book of Disasters
• Food and its Harmfulness
• al-Judari wa al-Hasbah, The Book of Smallpox and Measles
• Ketab dar Padid Amadaneh Sangrizeh (Stones in the Kidney and Bladder)
• Ketabeh Dardeh Roodeha
• Ketab dar Dard Paay va Dardeh Peyvandhayyeh Andam
• Ketab dar Falej
• The Book of Tooth Aches
• Dar Hey'ateh Kabed
• Dar Hey'ateh Ghalb (About Heart Ache)
• About the Nature of Doctors
• About the Earwhole
• Dar Rag Zadan
• Seydeh neh/sidneh
• Ketabeh Ibdal
• Food For Patients
• Soodhayeh Serkangabin
• Darmanhayeh Abneh
• The Book of Surgical Instruments
• The Book on Oil
• Fruits Before and After Lunch
• Book on Medical Discussion (with Jarir Tabib)
• Book on Medical Discussion II (with Abu Feiz)
• About the Menstrual Cycle
• Ghi Kardan
• Snow and Medicine
• Snow and Thirst
• The Foot
• Fatal Diseases
• About Poisoning
• Hunger
• Soil in Medicine
• The Thirst of Fish
• Sleep Sweating
• Warmth in Clothing
• Spring and Disease
• Misconceptions of a Doctors Capabilities
• The Social Role of Doctors

Translations

Razi's notable books and articles on medicine (in English) include:

• Mofid al Khavas, The Book for the Elite.
• The Book of Experiences
• The Cause of the Death of Most Animals because of Poisonous Winds
• The Physicians' Experiments
• The Person Who Has No Access to Physicians
• The Big Pharmacology
• The Small Pharmacology
• Gout
• Al Shakook ala Jalinoos, The Doubt on Galen
• Kidney and Bladder Stones
• Ketab tibb ar-Ruhani,The Spiritual Physik of Rhazes.

Alchemy

The Transmutation of Metals

Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim's book (The Philosophers Stone-Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801-873 BCE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mum founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy.
Finally we will mention Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: al-Asrar ("The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar ("The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work.

Apparently Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied":

"I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible..."

Chemical instruments and substances

Razi developed several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. He is known to have perfected methods of distillation and extraction, which have led to his discovery of sulfuric acid (by dry distillation of vitriol, (al-zajat) and alcohol. These discoveries paved the way for other Islamic alchemists, such as the discovery of various other mineral acids by Jabir Ibn Hayyam (known as Geber in Europe).

Hermeticism

Alchemy's source can be traced to the Hermetica, writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, Hermes Thrice-Great who is identified with the Egyptian god Thoth, inventor of alchemy and god of Wisdom. It was in ancient Egypt that the Hermetica emerged and reached the state now visible in various treatises of Arabian alchemists and philosophers. Hermeticism encompasses the Art of alchemy (both 'technical' and 'philosophical' alchemy) as well as astrology and talismanic magic. As in so may other respects, Moslems and other non-Europeans of late antiquity and the early middle ages outdid their Western contemporaries in preserving and extending the Hermetic tradition. Alchemical works began to enter Islamic lands from Alexandria as early as the 7th century, even prior to Jabir al-Hayan (known as Geberu). Many Arabian alchemists emerged since and most of them were physicians, just as al-Razi. Their alchemistical experiments lead to the discovery of many medicinal and chemical inventions which laid the foundation for future developments in both sciences.

Razi's alchemy, as well as his medical thinking struggled within the cocoon of hylomorphism. It dismisses the idea of potions and dispenses with an appeal to magic, magic meaning the reliance on symbols as causes. Although Razi does not reject the idea that miracles exist, in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature, his alchemical stockroom was enriched with products of Persian mining and manufacturing, even with sal ammoniac a Chinese discovery. He relied predominantly on the concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, which is the Neoplatonic conception of causality rather than an intellectual approach or a mechanical one. Razi's alchemy brings forward such empiric qualities as salinity and inflammability -the latter associated to 'oiliness' and 'sulphurousness'. These properties are not readily explained by the traditional composition of the elements such as : fire, water, earth and air, as al-�hazali and others after him were quick to note, influenced by critical thoughts such as Razi had.

Major works on alchemy

al-Razi's achievements are of exceptional importance in the history of chemistry, since in his books we find for the first time a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Razi's scheme of classification of the substances used in chemistry shows sound research on his part.

• The Secret (Al-Asrar)

This book was written in response to a request from Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Mohammed b. Yunis of Bukhara, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, a highly reputable natural scientist.
In his book Sirr al-Asrar, Razi divides the subject of "Matter' into three categories as he did in his previous book al-Asrar.

1. Knowledge and identification of drug components of plant-, animal- and mineral-origin and the description of the best type of each for utilization in treatment.
2. Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemist or apothecary.
3. Knowledge of seven alchemical procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of mercury, precipitation of sulfur and arsenic calcination of minerals (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass, talc, shells, and waxing.

This last category contains additionally a description of other methods and applications used in transmutation:
* The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles.
* The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', ('al-ajsad' and 'al-ahjar) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and Id salts ('al-amlah').
* The use of a liquid mordant which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit.

Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Al- Hayan (Jabir), Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold (gold leafing) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. Gilding and silvering of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Behind these procedures one does not find a deceptive motive rather a technical and economic deliberation. This becomes evident from the author's quotation of market prices and the expressed triumph of artisan, craftsman or alchemist declaring the results of their efforts "to make it look exactly like gold!". However, another motive was involved, namely, to manufacture something resembling gold to be sold quickly so to help a good friend who happened to be in need of money fast. Could it be Razi's alchemical technique of silvering and gilding metals which convinced many Muslim biographers that he was first a jeweler before he turned to the study of alchemy?

Of great interest in the text is Razi's classification of minerals into six divisions, showing his discussion a modern chemical connotation:

1. Four SPIRITS (AL-ARWAH) : mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar).
2. Seven BODIES (AL-AJSAD) : silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (plumbago), zinc (Kharsind), and tin.
3. Thirteen STONES : (AL-AHJAR) Pyrites marcasite (marqash*ta), magnesia, malachite, tutty Zinc oxide (tutiya), talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia , haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal Damascene is considered the best),
4. Seven VIRIOLS (AL-ZAJAT) : alum (ak-shubub), and white (qalqadzs), black , red, and yellow (qulqutar) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green (qalqand).
5. Seven BORATES : tinkar, natron, and impure sodium borate.
6. Eleven SALTS (AL-AMLAH): including brine, common (table) salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, and urine, rock, and sea salts. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances and their top choice, best colors and various adulterations.

Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy This consists of 2 classes:

1. Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the Blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pesstle), file, shears, descensory and semi-cylindrical iron mould.
2. Utensils used to carry out the proces of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers,large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel,crucible, alundel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.

• Secret of Secrets (Sirr Al-asrar)

This is Razi's most famous book which has gained a lot of recognition in the West. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy.

Books on alchemy

Here is a list of Razi's known books on alchemy, mostly in Persian:

• Modkhele Taalimi
• Elaleh Ma'aaden
• Isbaate Sanaa'at
• Ketabeh Sang
• Ketabe Tadbir
• Ketabe Aksir
• Ketabe Sharafe Sanaa'at
• Ketabe Tartib, Ketabe Rahat, The Simple Book
• Ketabe Tadabir
• Ketabe Shavahed
• Ketabe Azmayeshe Zar va Sim (Experimentation on Gold)
• Ketabe Serre Hakimaan
• Ketabe Serr (The Book of Secrets)
• Ketabe Serre Serr (The Secret of Secrets)
• The First Book on Experiments
• The Second Book on Experiments
• Resaale'ei Be Faan
• Arezooyeh Arezookhah
• A letter to Vazir Ghasem ben Abidellah
• Ketabe Tabvib

Philosophy

On existence

Razi believed that a competent physician must also be a philosopher well versed in the fundamental questions regarding existence:

"He proclaimed the absolutism of Euclidean space and mechanical time as the natural foundation of the world in which men lived, but resolved the dilemma of existent infinities by synthesizing this outlook with the atomic theory of Democritus, which recognized that matter existed in the form of indivisible and fathomable quanta. The continuity of space, however, holds due to the existence of void, or a region lacking matter... This is remarkably close to the systems yielded by the discoveries of such later European scientists as John Dalton and Max Planck, as well as the observational and theoretical works of modern astronomer Halton Arp and Objectivist philosopher Michael Miller. Progress, in the view of all these men, is not to be obstructed by a jumble of haphazard and contradictory relativistic assertions which result in metaphysical hodge-podge instead of a sturdy intellectual base. Even in regard to the task of the philosopher, Rhazes considered it to be progressing beyond the level of one's teachers, expanding the accuracy and scope of one's doctrine, and individually elevating oneself onto a higher intellectual plane." (G. Stolyarov II)

Razi is known to have been a free-thinking Islamic philosopher, since he was well-trained in ancient Greek sciences although his approach to chemistry was rather naturalistic.Moreover he was well versed in the theory of music, as so many other Islamic scientists of that time.

Metaphysics

His ideas on metaphysics were also based on the works of the great Greeks:

"The metaphysical doctrine of al-Razi, insofar as it can be reconstructed, derives from his concept of the five eternal principles. God, for him, does not 'create' the world from nothing but rather arranges a universe out of pre-existing principles. His account of the soul features a mythic origin of the world in which God out of pity fashions a physical playground for the soul in response to its own desires; the soul, once fallen into the new realm God has made for it, requires God's further gift of intellect in order to find its way once more to salvation and freedom. In this scheme, intellect does not appear as a separate principle but is rather a later grace of God to the soul; the soul becomes intelligent, possessed of reason and therefore able to discern the relative value of the other four principles. Whereas the five principles are eternal, intellect as such is apparently not. Such a doctrine of intellect is sharply at odds with that of all of Razi's philosophical contemporaries, who are in general either adherents of some form of Neoplatonism or of Aristotelianism. The remaining three principles, space, matter and time, serve as the non-animate components of the natural world. Space is defined by the relationship between the individual particles of matter, or atoms, and the void that surrounds them. The greater the density of material atoms, the heavier and more solid the resulting object; conversely, the larger the portion of void, the lighter and less solid. Time and matter have both an absolute, unqualified form and a limited form. Thus there is an absolute matter - pure extent - that does not depend in any way on place, just as there is a time, in this sense, that is not defined or limited by motion. The absolute time of al-Razi is, like matter, infinite; it thus transcends the time which Aristotle confined to the measurement of motion. Razi, in the cases of both time and matter, knew well how he differed from Aristotle and also fully accepted and intended the consequences inherent in his anti-Peripatetic positions." (Paul E. Walker)

It is quite evident that most of his thoughts were derived from the Islam, which is demonstrated clearly in his book: The Metaphysics.

Excerpt from The Philosophical Approach

"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and [[hekmat]] (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious wha