The Conquest of Cyprus by the Ottomans in 1570-1571
through the perception of contemporary Western sources
By Ladislav Kadlec
“[The sources in this article contain] a number of
information bulletins of the sixteenth century, published in Venice and in other
Italian and European cities, on the subject of the War of Cyprus in the years
1570 – 1571 between Western Christian states and the Ottoman Empire. An example
of an advanced form of ‘communication’ in modern times, the bulletins in the
collection were intended, in the times in which they circulated, to meet the
needs of communication of the Western public as to an outstandingly important
event – the war for the domination of the island of Cyprus.” (Koumarianou,
Catherine. Avvisi (1570-1572) The War of Cyprus. Nicosia: Bank of Cyprus
Cultural Foundation, 2004.)
The original Avvisi were reprinted in the above book and
illustrate the period Western view on the events that transpired on the island
of Cyprus. They are all printed between the years 1570 and 1572 and describe
events as they happen (geographical distances and contemporary communication
permitting) by the very nature of the avvisi as proto-newspapers. The purpose
of this review is not to offer a modern historical view, but rather to offer to
the public a glimpse of the period perception. The avvisi are currently in the
custodianship of the Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation and can be found under
their appropriate code (BCCF B-XXX), with the exception of the first source,
which is from the Collection of Vakis Papanastasiou. The language in
parentheses indicates the language of the original document.
The Ottoman Empire has for a longer period of time attempted
to bring the region of the Eastern Mediterranean under its control. By the year
1570 and following the conquests under their most famous of leaders, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent have conquered Anatolia only
60km to the north of Cyprus, the Levantine coast to the East and Mameluke Egypt
to the South. With Rhodes wrested from the Knights of St. John and Chios from
the Genoans, the natural target was a wealthy Venetian outpost: Cyprus. The
Venetians have for a long time expected an assault and have spend considerable
wealth to fortify the main cities of the island, which they purchased from the
last monarch at the end of the 15th century, as well as paid the
Porte an annual tribute. Despite all of this and an on going truce, Sultan
Selim II. was vehement about taking direct control over Cyprus. By the year
1570, the following letter arrived in Venice bearing an ultimatum:
Collection of Vakis Papanastasiou (German)
“The providence of the Gods has given me the right to
destroy the faith of the Christian and to become the sovereign of all. I greet
all of you who have in an unjust and abusive manner inveighed against me. And
you give me the right to take revenge and to crush both you and those who
support you, who are guilty of the bloodshed which they have caused among my
brethren…You took Cyprus out of my hands in a crafty and improper way, and for
that I shall attack you with all the powers that I possess on land and sea, I
will you out, I will put you all to death, I will lat waste every thing and I
will humiliate you. This is the law which our great prophet Mohamed has
entrusted to us.”
BCCF B-059 (Italian)
The Venetians decided to resist and began hurriedly to seek
allies in Europe. However this would take time as the Christian powers were
involved elsewhere whilst the centralized Ottomans have in advance mustered
their forces and prepared for war. The invasion began by the summer of 1570.
“Today, which is the 25th day of July, the news
arrived that the Turks landed in Cyprus more than 200 thousand men, cavalry and
infantry, and twelve thousand soldiers, as well as four thousand horsemen, who
were on their way to camp at Famagusta”
“Of this war of the Turks against my lords of Venice, from
what one can hear, the cause was Mustaffa Pasha, in order to win the favour of
the Sultan, and, in part, the Ragusans…and the bad offices of Gian Miches, Duke
of Naxos, who put it abroad that these my lords were starving and that the fire
at the Arsenal had destroyed all the galleys so that they could not construct
more than 60. It was prompted by information of this kind that the Turks
embarked upon the war against my lords, believing – in the face of these
misfortunes – the surrender of Cyprus without a fight certain, and that if they
if not take it by fair means, they would win it by force.”
BCCF B-081 (Italian)
The Turks land on the western coast of Cyprus and quickly
proceed to conquer the capital, Nicosia with its brand new, but not quite
completed , modern star-shaped fortifications. The city is put to the sword and
as a result all other places of importance (Kyrenia) surrender immediately.
Within three months of their landing (June 15th) the entire island
is occupied by the Turkish army, with one exception. The premier port of
Cyprus, the fortified city of Famagusta.
“On Saint Vito’s day, 30 Turkish galleys, constituting the
vanguard of the armada, arrived at Paphos, while the next day, the whole of it
arrived. On 3 July, they came to Alykes and immediately began to disembark they
army without any obstacle. Finally, they camped outside the walls of Nicosia.
On Saint James’ day and on 2 August, the Turks took the moat
and made inroads at four bastions which were not yet completely fortified. And
they remained there until 8 September. And the next night, towards the dawn of
the 9th [of September], some 1500 janissaries attacked in rabid
fury, for an hour and a half, and they took Nicosia. When they had entered,
they slaughtered anyone they encountered, so that of the whole population,
Italians and Greeks, some were killed and others taken prisoner, apart from
some who fled to Famagusta.
The reason why [the city] was taken so quickly was, it is
said, that there was no leader or governor inside [the city] and that the
Italians were fewer in numbers than was needed. All the burden of the toil and
the defense fell upon those few unfortunate Italians and the Greek nobles, who
never tired, day and night.
Then, in three days, the Turkish army marched as far as
here, to Famagusta, and it was on 13 September that they appeared and
immediately began to construct trenches and fortifications to install their
artillery.”
BCCF B-080 (French)
The news printed in Paris by September of 1570 is quite
optimistic and reports a number of small scale successes of the Christian
armies. Among them a small skirmish in the East. Of course by that point Cyprus
has fallen and the main Ottoman force is camped outside the walls of Famagusta,
their last target.
“Moreover, we have had news from Cyprus of 15 July that the
Turks have landed at a harbour near Famagusta thirty soldiers to strike at that
city of Famagusta, in which is Sforze Pallavicine [a] captain general with a
very good garrison of good and brave soldiers. And that the same sir
Pallavicine has ordered underground mines to be constructed all round the city
and that when those thirty thousand Turks were preparing for an onslaught on
the city, they set fire to these underground mines and thus ten thousand Turks
were killed. Then the same lord came out with his soldiers and also attacked
the rest, and some were taken prisoners and some escaped.”
BCCF B-183 (German)
The dramatic siege of Famagusta lasts more than anyone had
expected, but due to the dwindling of supplies of food and gunpowder, the
garrison enters into negotiations with the Turkish commander.
“When the Turks took Nicosia, the royal capital of Cyprus,
after a cruel siege, and enslaved it, using, as is their wont, the most harsh
and inhuman means, all fled to the great fortified port of Famagusta, which is
on the sea. On 16 February 1571, however, when [Venetians] had the order to
reinforce the fleet, they sailed from Crete and arrived at Famagusta. With them
were four thousand regular army, eight hundred picked soldiers from the Italian
possessions, three thousand inhabitants… and some two hundred Albanians.
However, in the same way that all the necessary measures had
been taken in the city for its defence, the enemy outside examined all
opportunities which they had of attacking the fortifications. … At the
beginning of April, Ali Pasha arrived in Cyprus, safe and unharmed.
On 25 April, the Turks made a base to set up their cannons
and again one trench after the other, and all this great speed and with great
art. And in order to finish everything quickly, they worked even at night,
which was easier, about forty thousand men.
[The defenders] raised a new fortification wall opposite and
in the face of the enemy trenches, in order to be able to strike at the enemy
and to drive them far off.
Three officers … were responsible for making munitions and
in this they were assisted by al the levels of the people, men who knew and had
experience.
One day, however, three hundred inhabitants from the city of
Famagusta with all their .. weapons, followed by many Italian marksmen, charged
out, but, unfortunately, they were assaulted by the enemy who were in the ditch
and the trench...which
they had made close up. Although to begin with, they put the enemy to flight
and killed many, in the end they suffered a great disaster. Three hundred were
killed and around sixty wounded. For this reason and so that no one else would
be exposed to this danger, no one now went outside the walls.
The enemy little by little drew close with their ditch and
their trenches there where the trenches of the Christians were and when they
had finished with these preparations also, they began on 19 May to bombard the
city of Famagusta with sixty-four great cannons… Mustafa was the commander of
the whole camp and himself directed the operations.
To begin with, things were not so bad, only the walls had
sustained damage and bombs fell inside the city. The cannons which were inside
the city of Famagusta, on the other hand, had caused major damage outside to
the enemy, but he little by little strengthened his attacks.
And when the skirmishes began, everyone and the Greeks
together, who were keeping watch on the walls, defended the city with heroism.
The Lord Bragadino was on the Andrucci castle, the Lord Astor Baglione on the
tower of St. Napa, the Lord Thiepolo in the Campo Santo, and this so that they
could watch as close quarters what was going forward, in order to encourage the
soldiers and the marksmen and to punish the cowardly.
During those days, when they began to bombard the city’s
fortifications, the lord Bragadino and the lord Baglione put out a decree that
they should distribute to the Greeks, the Italians and the other soldiers who
were at the gates wine, vegetables, cheese, cheese and pickled meat in
portions. When someone did not seek more to eat, his reward for that was 2
Golden each day for bread.
Even behind the trenches and the fortifications works which
they had made, the enemy could not rest for a single moment, but lived in fear
and despair. But when the war supplies and the gunpowder of the Christians
started to be in short supply, the officers gave an order that no one should fire
more than thirty shots in a row, and that in the presence of an officer, so
that the munitions were not wasted.
When, finally, the Turks managed to encircle the fortified
positions of the Christians, with greater losses on both sides, they began to
bombard the fortifications from five different points.
[The Venetians] dug openings in the walls and placed
marksmen in all the trenches, so that no one could any longer venture out.
The Turks, however, continued to pile up stones and rubble
in the ditch to make it level so that they could cross to reach the fates and
the trenches, which they succeeded in and arrived close to the walls at two
points. As they went into the ditch, they took protect themselves by using
sacks full of cotton and bundles of wood, and so those of the Christians who
had undertaken the defence
could no longer strike at them, even though, as is well known, it is very
difficult to protect oneself from below when being attacked from above.
Then the Christians attempted to hold back the onrush of the
Turks be digging openings in the ground to prevent them… But however much they
dug to prevent them, they were unable to find them in the parts when they dug,
though they could be heard beneath.
On 21 June, the enemy managed to fire the bastions at the
tower from the building with the munitions and had blown up the walls and the
fortification. [In a few days] another frigate arrived from Crete and brought
the news that the Christians of Famagusta would soon and securely obtain
reinforcements from the others. This news gave great joy and courage to all who
were within the city and all together…worked to close the breaches in the
walls, using the rubble and the stones and the sacks which the Greeks had
brought. And so the Christians made good again by night from the beginning all
the damage which the enemy caused by the day. No one enjoyed sleep and peace,
but rather the contrary, all the soldiers were standing on the walls and their
officers with them, giving them instructions. And no one found any peace, not
only at night, but neither by day, under the burning sun. And the enemy without
made a tumult all day long, in order to irritate those who were within the
city.
By the night of 8 July…it was now impossible for the
Christians to hide behind [earthworks] and those who worked to repair them were
in great danger.
When the numbers of the Christians who remained there
dwindled, they were forced, by the bombs which were falling, to abandon their
position. And they raised new trenches and fortified positions inside the city
using the double protective cover.
On 14 July, the Turks attempted to demolish the fate with
cries of triumph and set up their flags next to their cannons, opposite the
gate. But the lord Baglione and the lord Bragadino heartened the soldiers and
all together they charged out from the fate to kill the Turks and drive them
away from here. They also lit the fire which they had prepared on the left side
and four hundred Turks were killed. The lord Baglione himself seized a Turk and
took the flag from his hands.
The next day the Turks blew up a part of the walls, but they
achieved nothing by this and did not continue with other attacks. Rather, they
made earthworks in the ditch and surrounded the city in order to protect
themselves better, and they filled the trenches with the rubble and they did
all this hidden behind the tents, so that the Christians should not see them
and realize what they were doing.
All the women of Famagusta helped by carrying various
things, by boiling water in the great cauldrons or doing other jobs, nor did
they fail to present themselves, nor did the clergy, at the posts which had
been appointed from them, to work on to carry stones, water and other things.
And wherever they saw a fire, they put it out at once.
The enemy continued to besiege the city, using other
stratagems. But the moment had come when in the city there was nothing left but
hope in God, in the bravery of the officers and in the loyalty and courage of
the soldiers. The wine was finished, fresh or pickled meat had likewise run
out, only a little cheese still remained (which it was impossible to buy even
with a great deal of money). For this reason, they began little by little to
slaughter all the animals … and to eat whatever they could find, stale bread or
whatever else, and to drink water mixed with vinegar.
The Turks in the meantime had managed to place explosives
below the walls at many points, particularly at three sensitive points on the
bastion next to the central gate. And no one any longer found any rest.
The corps of Italian soldiers had largely dwindled; there
remained only eight hundred persons who were still unscathed, but they were
exhausted and worn out by the sleepless nights and the unbearable heat. And of
the Greeks, most had been lost and the best soldiers had been killed.
For these reasons, all these who had remained inside the
city resolved to prepare a letter, which they wrote on 20 July, and to give it
to their lords, the lord Bragadino and lord Baglione. In this letter, they
explained that the whole city and its fortifications were in a very poor
condition, that only a few soldiers remained and even less food, war supplies
and other items. That there was no longer any hope that reinforcements would
come and they themselves had done whatever they could up to now to defend the
city, putting their lives, their health and whatever else they had in danger.
And that in order to save the
honour of their wives and children, they could not offer resistance to
the enemy and that it was preferable to surrender a honorable terms so that
their wives and young children who were more in danger of slavery and dishonour
would be able to escape.
While all this was afoot, the enemy approached even closer
to the city, setting up fortifications and preparing explosives which they
fired off altogether on 29 July.
The city’s position grew even worse. Only seven tons of
gunpowder had remained and there was a great shortage of food. For this reason,
all the officers together resolved, invoking the power of God, to surrender the
city and its fortifications to the Turks, but on condition that no one should
be harmed.
Thus in the evening of 1 August they raised white flags on
the walls in order to show that they wished to capitulate. Mustafa, the leader
of the Turks, sent his representative to the city of Famagusta. And it was
decided that two hostages should be held by each side until they reached a
final agreement.
The lord Baglione discussed and negotiated the agreement
with the two Turkish hostages. They arrived at the conclusion that all the
inhabitants of the city should leave without any of them being harmed, taking
their weapons, their flags and all their goods which they could convey with
them and, further, five carts and three of the strongest horses, and all this,
having been loaded on to the ships, should go, unharmed, to Candia of Crete. On
the other hand, it was agreed that the Greeks should remain in their homes and
that no harm should befall them because of their Christian faith.
This agreement, as was right, was accepted by Mustafa
himself, who also signed it. After this, ships sailed into the harbour of
Famagusta and the soldiers loaded all the goods, while the Turks observed all
that had been agreed and harmed none of the Christians. On the fifth of August
towards evening and when almost all were on board the ships and were ready to
set off, and the nobles wished to go with them, count Hector Martinengo went in
the morning with a letter to find Mustafa himself to inform him that the
Christians were ready to hand him the keys of the city.
However, the answer which Mustafa gave them … filled
everyone with disquiet, as he told him to tell his superiors that Mustafa would
enter the city when he could and wished to do so himself. And that he would
very much like to see and to make the acquaintance of the governor of the city
of Famagusta for his valour and knightly deeds, which were certainly to be
praised.”
BCCF B-183 (German)
The negotiations however break down and a dramatic turn of events
sees the hopes of the Christian survivors dashed. The Christians offer the
following version of events.
“When this reply of Mustafa reached the hands of the lord
Bragadino, it was agreed that the nobles of the city should all meet together …
to go to the tent of Mustafa himself. There, to begin with, he received them
with friendship and frankness. Mustafa invited them to be seated and started to
converse with them. In the end, however, he accused them of giving given orders
the previous night to kill certain Turks ho they had taken prisoner and were
holding in prison. The nobles of the city of Famagusta replied that he was
telling lies, but at the point Mustafa became enraged and gave orders that they
should all be seized and bound hand and foot.
On 7 August, Mustafa entered the city of Famagusta [and] for
five whole days … the Turks were spreading fear and death everywhere.
That day, the seventh of August, a Friday, the Turks
celebrated with great feasts and they seized the lord Bragadino, in the
presence of Mustafa himself, and they took him everywhere on the ruined
fortifications of the city. … And when they reached the fortified positions,
where the Christians during the siege of the city had thrown stones and boiling
oil on the Turks, they forced him to bend and kiss the earth. Then they took
him to the sea, made him sit on a wooden seat and raised him high up so all the
Christians from the ships, the Christians who a little time before had been
taken prisoner and were bound with chains, could see him. Then they took him to
the central square of the city of Famagusta, took away from him the two sacks
[of stones] which he was laden, bound him, and began to torture him with
appalling torments. * But however much they tortured him, the lord Bragadino
neither played the coward or lost his courage. On the contrary, he cried out to
his enemies that they had betrayed their faith and he charged them with their
dishonourable and tyrannous practices. And then, after he had shown great
endurance, God quietly called him to Himself. When he expired, the Turks flayed
him and, having filled his skin with straw, hung it high up on a pole and took
it as far as Syria so that all Christians would see it and realize how the
Turks were making a mockery of them. “
BCCF-B183 (German)
The same avvisi however also reprints the wording of the
letter from the Ottoman commander to the Sultan and offers a very different
version of events. Unfortunately it is beyond the scale of this review to offer
analyses upon the factual basis of either claim.
“In the city they had already started to collect together
their goods, the nobles and the rest of the officers, and to load them on to
the ships which were anchored in the harbour to convey the Christians, which
was a proper and good thing, as their nobles and superiors said. But when, in
the evening, the Christians had loaded all the goods on to the ships and most
of them were now ready set forth, an order was given to kill fifty Turks (whom
they still had imprisoned in the city) and they killed them all except two.
These two escaped and went and to the pasha. The next day the pasha, when the
officers came from the city to find him, told them everything that he had
heard, how they had given an order to kill the Turks whom they were holding
imprisoned. Yes, they were the ones, replied the senior of the Christians and
what was done was done well. But the rage of the commander Mustafa flared up
and he gave orders that they should kill the fifty Christian soldiers, the
nobles and the officers on the spot. But the others, those who were on board
the ships, he bound them all in the chains and sold as slaves. On the other
hand, those remained in the city came to no harm. Then we arranged in the
churches whatever is necessary for our faith and we began to pray to our Lord
and God and to beseech Him to give health to our lord. Other fortifications
such as these we had never seen in our lives.”
BCCF – B230 (Venetian)
On October 7th the fleet of the Ottoman Empire
and the Holy League (consisting of Hapsburg Spain, Venice, the Papacy, Genoa,
Savoy, Knights Hospitaller, Tuscany and other Italian states) clash off the
coast of Greece at Lepanto(in which Miguel de Cervantes was wounded and lost
his left arm). The result is a crushing defeat of the Turkish fleet that
thrills Europe. However the strategic impact of the battle is minimal. Cyprus
is firmly within the Ottoman hands by then (Famagusta having fallen two months
prior) and during the winter lull in campaigning the Turks rebuild their entire
fleet. By 1572 the Holy League shows signs of disunity and Venice seeks to
return to its mercantile endeavors and signs a peace treaty with the Ottoman
Empire ceding Cyprus to the Sultan. The only consolation to the Christians is
the tactical triumph at Lepanto and a fictional lamentation of Sultan Selim II.
upon hearing the news that appears as a poem in the final avvisi concerning the
War of Cyprus.
“Blessed be the name of the Lord, who by the presence of
that holy martyr [Bragadino] in paradise and by his supplications swiftly
granted him revenge on those dogs, since after a short space of time in a
miraculous manner he crushed their armada, granting the Christians so signal
and eternal a victory.
Selim was in a hall at a great feast with nobles and damsels
when the news – which for him was neither good nor welcome – arrived: that of
his ruined armada nothing remained. And he struck his head against the wall,
howling with cries to reach the stars, while in his rage his breath was poison.
[Sultan Selim ends the lamentation:]
“Knowing, then, that I shall have so bad an end, what else
am I to do but to try to save myself? In order to escape the ultimate disaster,
I will present myself to the Pope. He will absolve me and that is the best
thing he can do. And he will rightly teach me the faith when I seek mercy at
his feet.
And when the holy farther has forgiven me, I shall ask him
to baptize me on the instant. When that happens, I will gave feasting and song.
And everyone will rejoice at that. All my bitter tears will turn to joy, since
I will have repented of all the cruel acts which I have committed.
Since it has pleased
the Lord of Glory to leave an eternal memorial of me.”