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  Quote medenaywe Quote  Post ReplyReply Direct Link To This Post Topic: Science and Nature News Redux
    Posted: 10-Jan-2015 at 01:00
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  Quote medenaywe Quote  Post ReplyReply Direct Link To This Post Posted: 11-Jan-2015 at 04:34
Self driven car is coming!Self paid ride comes soon!Wink

Edited by medenaywe - 11-Jan-2015 at 04:36
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Do viruses make us smarter?

A new study from Lund University in Sweden indicates that inherited viruses that are millions of years old play an important role in building up the complex networks that characterise the human brain.
Researchers have long been aware that endogenous retroviruses constitute around five per cent of our DNA. For many years, they were considered junk DNA of no real use, a side-effect of our evolutionary journey.

In the current study, Johan Jakobsson and his colleagues show that retroviruses seem to play a central role in the basic functions of the brain, more specifically in the regulation of which genes are to be expressed, and when. The findings indicate that, over the course of evolution, the viruses took an increasingly firm hold on the steering wheel in our cellular machinery. The reason the viruses are activated specifically in the brain is probably due to the fact that tumours cannot form in nerve cells, unlike in other tissues.

"We have been able to observe that these viruses are activated specifically in the brain cells and have an important regulatory role. We believe that the role of retroviruses can contribute to explaining why brain cells in particular are so dynamic and multifaceted in their function. It may also be the case that the viruses' more or less complex functions in various species can help us to understand why we are so different," says Johan Jakobsson, head of the research team for molecular neurogenetics at Lund University.

The article, based on studies of neural stem cells, shows that these cells use a particular molecular mechanism to control the activation processes of the retroviruses. The findings provide us with a complex insight into the innermost workings of the most basal functions of the nerve cells. At the same time, the results open up potential for new research paths concerning brain diseases linked to genetic factors.

"I believe that this can lead to new, exciting studies on the diseases of the brain. Currently, when we look for genetic factors linked to various diseases, we usually look for the genes we are familiar with, which make up a mere two per cent of the genome. Now we are opening up the possibility of looking at a much larger part of the genetic material which was previously considered unimportant. The image of the brain becomes more complex, but the area in which to search for errors linked to diseases with a genetic component, such as neurodegenerative diseases, psychiatric illness and brain tumours, also increases."

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/01/150112093129.htm



Edited by TheAlaniDragonRising - 12-Jan-2015 at 12:04
What a handsome figure of a dragon. No wonder I fall madly in love with the Alani Dragon now, the avatar, it's a gorgeous dragon picture.
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  Quote medenaywe Quote  Post ReplyReply Direct Link To This Post Posted: 13-Jan-2015 at 01:33
Alani it is time for new topic now!Evolution&Microbes!Smile
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  Quote medenaywe Quote  Post ReplyReply Direct Link To This Post Posted: 13-Jan-2015 at 01:41
New 20 ton Russian modul comes on ISS 2017-18,NEM:
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  Quote medenaywe Quote  Post ReplyReply Direct Link To This Post Posted: 16-Jan-2015 at 00:04
Second launch of Angara-5 in 2015?!?
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  Quote medenaywe Quote  Post ReplyReply Direct Link To This Post Posted: 17-Jan-2015 at 08:18
Urgent or test!?!

Year starts with a trouble

On Jan. 14, Roskosmos announced that around 11:44 Moscow Time, a leak of dangerous chemicals (apparently ammonia coolant) took place onboard the US segment of the station. As a result, the affected part of the outpost had to be isolated and the crew evacuated to the Russian segment. The contamination level on the Russian segment remains within allowable limits, the agency said. According to the chief of the Russian mission control Maksim Matyushin, "The safety of the crew was ensured thanks to cooperative and quick actions of cosmonauts and astronauts and support groups in Moscow and Houston. Further actions on the American segment should be developed by the US," Matyushin said, "Currently, Mission Control in Houston is analyzing the information about the status of the US segment." Several hours later, NASA announced that the evacuation of the crew was most likely caused by a false alarm and there was no direct data confirming the actual ammonia leak.

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  Quote TheAlaniDragonRising Quote  Post ReplyReply Direct Link To This Post Posted: 17-Jan-2015 at 23:10
For those who might want to understand me a little bit more. Smile

Social Cognition in Social Anxiety: First Evidence

for Increased Empathic Abilities 

 

ABSTRACT

Background: Individuals with social phobia (SP) show

sensitivity and attentiveness to other people’s states

of mind. Although cognitive processes in SP have been

extensively studied, these individuals’ social cognition

characteristics have never been examined before. We

hypothesized that high socially anxious individuals

(HSA) may exhibit elevated mentalizing and empathic

abilities.

Methods: Empathy was assessed using self-rating

scales in HSA individuals (n=21) and low socially anxious

(LSA) individuals (n=22), based on their score on the

Liebowitz social anxiety scale. A computerized task

was used to assess the ability to judge first and second

order affective vs. cognitive mental state attributions.

Results: HSA individuals exhibited elevated affective

empathy tendencies. However, controlling for the

general anxiety variable revealed that social anxiety

was related to cognitive empathy measures, rather

than affective empathy. In addition, compared with

LSA participants, HSA participants exhibited higher

accuracy levels on the affective mental state attribution

conditions, but were less accurate than LSA individuals

on the parallel cognitive mental state attribution

conditions.

Limitations: Additional research with larger samples

and clinically diagnosed individuals is required.

Conclusions: Results support the hypothesis that high

socially anxious individuals may demonstrate a unique

social-cognitive abilities profile with elevated cognitive

empathy tendencies and high accuracy in affective

mental state attributions. 

 

Introduction

Attention processes such as hypervigilance to threatening

social information and self-focused attention are

assumed to play an important role in the maintenance

of social phobia (SP) (1, 2). Although cognitive biases in

SP have been extensively documented in the literature

(3-6), these individuals’ social cognition capacities have

never been examined before. Individuals with SP are

preoccupied with the impression they make, and place

fundamental importance to being positively appraised

by others. As a result of their social concerns, they may

ambivalently tune themselves to obtain insight into others’

state of mind, displaying heightened self-awareness

and excessive alertness to social signals. These (internal

and external) attentional biases which influence the perceptiveness

of social stimuli in SP may overall be manifested

in a unique social-cognitive abilities profile.

One cardinal aspect of social cognition is the ability

to empathize (7). Empathy, in its broadest sense, refers

to the reactions of one individual to the observed experiences

of another (8). While some investigators have

emphasized empathy as the ability to engage in the cognitive

process of adopting another’s psychological point of

view (“cognitive empathy”), others stressed its emotional

facets (“affective empathy”), referring to the capacity to

experience a vicarious response to another person (9).

In addition to the cognitive perspective taking component

of empathy, another perspective taking type is

referred to as visual perspective taking; the ability to take

an others’ perspective visually (10). Interestingly, the state

of visually taking an observer perspective is a common

imagery phenomenon in SP (2, 11-13). The assumption

that self-focused attention and social evaluative concerns

increase the likelihood to adopt an observer perspective

has gained support in non-anxious (14, 15) and socially

anxious individuals as well (12, 13, 16). 99

Yasmin Tibi-Elhanany and Simone G. Shamay-Tsoory

It had been suggested that the visual perspective ability

may not be restricted to adopting an external viewpoint,

but it may be related to the capacity to adopt mental perspectives

in healthy subjects (17) and schizotypic individuals

(18). Considering their vigilance with regard to

social cues, increased other-awareness and self-monitoring

in social situations, it was speculated that individuals

with SP will show increased empathic tendencies.

Empathy is thought to require not only adequate

social perception (19), but also entails the capacity to

comprehend complex mental states (20). Taking the

others’ external vantage point in SP might also indicate

increased mentalizing abilities.

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to make inferences

regarding the mental state, desires and intentions

of other individuals, is another major component of

social cognition (21). This ability to infer others’ mental

states (mentalizing) is closely linked to the ability of

empathizing, since failure to represent other persons’

beliefs and intentions may result in failure to see things

from another person’s perspective and, thus, interfere

with the empathic response (20, 22).

Similarly to empathy, a dual feature of cognitive and

affective ToM has been suggested. The first emphasizes

the capacity to represent mental states of others that are

manifested in their thoughts and beliefs (23), whereas

the affective aspect of ToM includes the inferences one

makes regarding others’ emotional states and feelings.

Abu-Akel (24) has suggested that mentalizing deficits

in developmental and psychiatric populations may be

viewed as lying on a continuum, in which at one end

ToM deficits stem from lack the awareness of others’

mental state (e.g., people with autistic spectrum disorders),

whereas the other end of this range includes

individuals whose abnormal ToM abilities are the consequence

of a tendency to over attribute mental states to

others (e.g., people with paranoid thinking). Although

they were not placed on this ToM range, the basic ability

of individuals with SP to represent others’ mental

states is manifested in their concern about others’ attitudes

towards them. However, their excessive alertness

to the social world and the sense their worries are being

“seen through” by others (11) might be associated with

a tendency to over attribute mental states to others.

Although empathic and ToM abilities have been

extensively documented in several disorders such as antisocial

personality disorders (25), autism (26), Asperger’s

syndrome (27), and schizophrenia (28, 29), no reported

study has explored these abilities in individuals with

social anxiety disorder. Taken together, the purpose of the 

It had been suggested that the visual perspective ability

may not be restricted to adopting an external viewpoint,

but it may be related to the capacity to adopt mental perspectives

in healthy subjects (17) and schizotypic individuals

(18). Considering their vigilance with regard to

social cues, increased other-awareness and self-monitoring

in social situations, it was speculated that individuals

with SP will show increased empathic tendencies.

Empathy is thought to require not only adequate

social perception (19), but also entails the capacity to

comprehend complex mental states (20). Taking the

others’ external vantage point in SP might also indicate

increased mentalizing abilities.

Theory of Mind (ToM), the ability to make inferences

regarding the mental state, desires and intentions

of other individuals, is another major component of

social cognition (21). This ability to infer others’ mental

states (mentalizing) is closely linked to the ability of

empathizing, since failure to represent other persons’

beliefs and intentions may result in failure to see things

from another person’s perspective and, thus, interfere

with the empathic response (20, 22).

Similarly to empathy, a dual feature of cognitive and

affective ToM has been suggested. The first emphasizes

the capacity to represent mental states of others that are

manifested in their thoughts and beliefs (23), whereas

the affective aspect of ToM includes the inferences one

makes regarding others’ emotional states and feelings.

Abu-Akel (24) has suggested that mentalizing deficits

in developmental and psychiatric populations may be

viewed as lying on a continuum, in which at one end

ToM deficits stem from lack the awareness of others’

mental state (e.g., people with autistic spectrum disorders),

whereas the other end of this range includes

individuals whose abnormal ToM abilities are the consequence

of a tendency to over attribute mental states to

others (e.g., people with paranoid thinking). Although

they were not placed on this ToM range, the basic ability

of individuals with SP to represent others’ mental

states is manifested in their concern about others’ attitudes

towards them. However, their excessive alertness

to the social world and the sense their worries are being

“seen through” by others (11) might be associated with

a tendency to over attribute mental states to others.

Although empathic and ToM abilities have been

extensively documented in several disorders such as antisocial

personality disorders (25), autism (26), Asperger’s

syndrome (27), and schizophrenia (28, 29), no reported

study has explored these abilities in individuals with 

social anxiety disorder. Taken together, the purpose of the

present study was to examine the hypothesis that socially

anxious individuals may exhibit elevated empathic tendencies

and emotional ToM abilities, based on their sensitivity

and attentiveness to others’ state of mind.

The first goal of the present study was to characterize

the relationship between cognitive and affective empathy

and social anxiety in sub-clinical socially anxious

individuals. The second goal was to compare mentalizing

abilities of individuals with low and high social

anxiety. Finally, the relative contribution of trait/general

anxiety on empathy was also examined to assess the

specificity of the contribution of the social component

in social anxiety as compared with the general tendency

of participants to be anxious.

Method

Subjects

Subjects were 87 volunteers (age ranged from 19 to 53)

who responded to an advertisement. A trained clinical

psychologist administered a demographic and clinical

questionnaire which included questions regarding

demographic details as well as physical and mental

health questions. Individuals suffering from neurological

problems or a major physical illness, alcohol

or substance abuse were excluded from the study. All

participants completed the self-report format of the

Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) (30). This version

of the LSAS translated into Hebrew was reported

to demonstrate high test-retest reliability in a sample

of patients with SP (r=0.87 and r= 0.91 for the LSAS

anxiety and avoidance scales respectively). In addition,

the LSAS also demonstrated high internal consistency

for both the anxiety and avoidance subscales, and good

treatment sensitivity (31). In our sample, scores ranged

from 0 to 84, Mean= 35.75, SD=18.19. All participants

were fluent in Hebrew, and testing was conducted individually

in two sessions.

Clinical assessment

Additionally to the LSAS, participants completed the

Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) (32) and the Trait version

(will be referred to as trait anxiety inventory; TAI) of

the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (33).

Subjects were further assigned to either low or high

social anxiety (LSA, HSA) groups according to their

total LSAS scores. The LSA group consisted of subjects

who scored lower than 25 (lower quartile) on the LSAS 

(n= 22; 12 males, 10 females), whereas the HSA group

included subjects who scored higher than 45 (upper

quartile) on the LSAS (n=21; 6 males, 15 females).

Materials

Assessment of empathic abilities

Two self-report scales were used to assess empathic

abilities. Affective empathy was evaluated by the

Questionnaire Measure of Emotional Empathy (QMEE)

(34) – a widely utilized instrument that evaluates the

affective role taking ability, tapping the likelihood of the

tendency to react emotionally to the observed experiences

of other people in a variety of contexts.

Both affective and cognitive empathy were further

assessed using the Interpersonal Reactive Index (IRI)

(35). This instrument consists of four seven-item subscales

each tapping a separate component of empathy.

The perspective taking scale (PT) measures the reported

tendency to spontaneously adopt the psychological point

of view of others in everyday life. The fantasy scale (FS)

measures the tendency to imaginatively transpose oneself

into fictional situations. Those two scales are considered

to tap the cognitive facet of empathy. On the other hand

the two other empathy scales measure an affective facet

of empathy: the empathic concern (EC) scale assesses the

tendency to experience feelings of sympathy and compassion

for others and the personal distress scale (PD)

taps the tendency to experience distress and discomfort

in response of others’ observed distress. It has been suggested

that while the PT and the FS subscales of the IRI

assess cognitive empathy, the PD and EC subscales tap

affective empathy. Therefore we used the sum of the PT

and FS as a cognitive empathy index and the sum of the

PD and EC as affective empathy indexes.

The selection of the IRI scales was based on a pretest

designed to evaluate the Hebrew version of these instruments,

reliability analysis of the Hebrew versions of

these empathy scales yielded high reliability coefficients

for both the cognitive empathy scale (Alpha=0.79) and

the affective empathy scale (Alpha = 0.82) (36).

ToM Task: Cognitive and affective mental inference

and a mentalistic significance of eye direction:

This computerized task (programmed using E-prime) is

based on a task described previously by Baron-Cohen

(37) and involves the ability to judge mental states based

on verbal and eye gaze cues. The task consists of 64 trials,

each showing a cartoon outline of a face (named

Yoni) and four colored pictures of either objects belonging to a single category (e.g., fruits, chairs) or faces, one

in each corner of the computer screen. The subject’s

task is to point to the correct answer (the image Yoni

is referring to), based on a sentence that appears at the

top of the screen and available cues such as Yoni’s eye

gaze, Yoni’s facial expression or the face’s (the one Yoni

is referring to) eye gaze and facial expression (Figure

1). There are three main conditions: “cognitive” (24

trials), “affective” (24 trials) and “physical” (16 trials),

each requiring either a 1st (32 trials) or a 2nd (32 trials)

order inference. The cognitive and the affective conditions

involve mental inferences whereas the physical

condition requires a choice based on a physical attribute

of the character (thus serving as a control condition,

to ensure that the subject understands the task).

In the first order cognitive conditions (Figure 1a), both

Yoni’s facial expression and the verbal cue are neutral,

whereas in the affective conditions Figure 1a), both cues

provide affective (For example: Yoni is thinking of ___

[Cog 1. condition] vs. Yoni loves___ [Aff 1. condition]).

Each ToM condition had a control physical condition

to control for errors made due to attention and working

memory deficits. The control physical conditions also

served as a test of the ability to understand the instructions

and follow the task demands and assess basic

visual scanning abilities.

In the 2nd order condition (Cog2, Aff2, Phy2) the

four stimuli consist of face images and the choice of the

correct response requires understanding of the interaction

between each of these figures and Yoni’s mental

state Figure 1b). In 70% of the 2nd trials Yoni’s eye gaze

is directed at one of the four faces stimuli (the correct

answer) and in 30% trials Yoni’s gaze is directed straight

ahead. (This was done after a pilot study that demonstrated

that some subjects responded automatically to

the stimuli to which the Yoni’s gaze was directed and

avoided reading the sentences.) When Yoni’s gaze is

directed straight ahead the decision must be based on

the verbal cue and the face’s gaze. Subject’s performance

was rated for accuracy and reaction time....

http://www.iscort.org.il/upload/infocenter/info_images/05_social%20cognition%20in.pdf



Edited by TheAlaniDragonRising - 17-Jan-2015 at 23:12
What a handsome figure of a dragon. No wonder I fall madly in love with the Alani Dragon now, the avatar, it's a gorgeous dragon picture.
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Meteor 2 out of order?!?Night&Cloudy weather radar with resolution of 400m!
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